Biography of Catherine the Great, personal life, children. Catherine II and her sex life The reign and achievements of Catherine II

Catherine II is the great Russian empress, whose reign became the most significant period in Russian history. The era of Catherine the Great is marked by a “golden age” Russian Empire, whose cultural and political life the queen raised to the European level.

Portrait of Catherine II. Artist Vladimir Borovikovsky / Tretyakov Gallery

The biography of Catherine II is full of light and dark stripes, numerous plans and achievements, as well as a stormy personal life, about which films are made and books are written to this day.

Childhood and youth

Catherine II was born on May 2 (April 21, old style) 1729 in Prussia in the family of the governor of Stettin, Prince of Zerbst and the Duchess of Holstein-Gottorp. Despite the rich pedigree, the princess's family did not have a significant fortune, but this did not stop her parents from providing home education for their daughter. At the same time, the future Russian empress learned English, Italian and French languages, mastered dancing and singing, and also gained knowledge of the basics of history, geography and theology.

As a child, the young princess was a playful and curious child with a pronounced “boyish” character. She did not show bright mental abilities and did not demonstrate her talents, but she helped her mother in raising her younger sister Augusta, which suited both parents. IN early years Mother's name was Catherine II Fike, which means little Federica.

At the age of 15, it became known that the Princess of Zerbst had been chosen as a bride for the heir Peter Fedorovich, who later became the Russian Emperor. The princess and her mother were secretly invited to Russia, where they went under the name of the Countesses of Rhinebeck.

The girl immediately began to study Russian history, language and Orthodoxy in order to learn more fully about her new homeland. Soon she converted to Orthodoxy and was named Ekaterina Alekseevna, and the next day she became engaged to Pyotr Fedorovich, who was her second cousin.

Palace coup and ascension to the throne

After the wedding with Peter III, nothing changed in the life of the future Russian empress - she continued to devote herself to self-education, studying philosophy, jurisprudence and the works of world famous authors, since her husband showed no interest in her and openly had fun with other ladies in front of her eyes. After 9 years of marriage, when the relationship between Peter and Catherine finally went wrong, the queen gave birth to an heir to the throne, who was immediately taken away from her and was not allowed to see him.

Then a plan to overthrow her husband from the throne matured in the head of Catherine the Great. She subtly, clearly and prudently organized a palace coup, in which she was helped by the English Ambassador Williams and the Chancellor of the Russian Empire, Count Alexei Bestuzhev.

It soon became clear that both confidants of the future Russian empress had betrayed her. But Catherine did not abandon this plan and found new allies in its implementation. They were the Orlov brothers, adjutant Fyodor Khitrov and sergeant. Foreigners also took part in organizing the palace coup, providing sponsorship to bribe the right people.

In 1762, the Empress was ready to take an irrevocable step - she went to St. Petersburg, where the guards units, who by that time were already dissatisfied with the military policy of Emperor Peter III, swore allegiance to her. After this, he abdicated the throne, was taken into custody and soon died under unknown circumstances. 2 months later, on September 22, 1762, Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was crowned in Moscow and became the Russian Empress Catherine II.

Reign and achievements of Catherine II

From the very first day of her ascension to the throne, the queen clearly outlined her royal tasks and began to implement them. She quickly formulated and carried out reforms in the Russian Empire, which affected all spheres of life of the population. Catherine the Great pursued a policy that took into account the interests of all classes, which won the support of her subjects.

To pull the Russian Empire out of the financial quagmire, the tsarina carried out secularization and took away the lands of churches, turning them into secular property. This made it possible to pay off the army and replenish the treasury of the empire by 1 million peasant souls. At the same time, she managed to quickly establish trade in Russia, doubling the number of industrial enterprises in the country. Thanks to this, the amount of state revenue increased 4 times, the empire was able to maintain a large army and begin the development of the Urals.

As for Catherine’s domestic policy, today it is called “enlightened absolutism”, because the empress tried to achieve the “common good” for society and the state. The absolutism of Catherine II was marked by the adoption of new legislation, which was adopted on the basis of the “Order of Empress Catherine,” containing 526 articles.

They spoke about the principles that were to guide the deputies-lawmakers, primarily about the ideas of Charles de Montesquieu, Jean Leron d'Alembert and other educators. The Code of Laws was developed by the Statutory Commission specially convened in 1766.

Due to the fact that political activity The queen still had a “pro-noble” character; from 1773 to 1775 she was faced with a peasant uprising led by. The peasant war engulfed almost the entire empire, but the state army suppressed the rebellion and arrested Pugachev, who was subsequently beheaded. This was the only decree on the death penalty that the empress issued during her reign.

In 1775, Catherine the Great carried out a territorial division of the empire and expanded Russia into 11 provinces. During her reign, Russia acquired Azov, Crimea, Kuban, as well as parts of Belarus, Poland, Lithuania and the western part of Volyn. Catherine's provincial reform, according to researchers, had a number of significant shortcomings.

When forming provinces, the national composition of the population was not taken into account; moreover, its implementation required an increase in budget expenditures. At the same time, elected courts were introduced in the country, which dealt with criminal and civil cases.

In 1785, the Empress organized local government in cities. By decree, Catherine II established a clear set of noble privileges - she freed nobles from paying taxes, compulsory military service, and gave them the right to own lands and peasants. Thanks to the empress, a secondary education system was introduced in Russia, for which special closed schools, institutes for girls, and educational homes were built. In addition, Catherine founded the Russian Academy, which became one of the leading European scientific bases.

During her reign, Catherine paid special attention to the development of agriculture. It was considered a fundamental industry for Russia, which influenced the economic development of the state. The increase in arable land led to an increase in grain exports.

Under her, for the first time in Russia, bread began to be sold, which the population bought with paper money, also introduced into use by the empress. Also among the valor of the monarch is the introduction of vaccination in Russia, which made it possible to prevent deadly epidemics in the country, thereby maintaining the number of citizens.

During her reign, Catherine the Second survived 6 wars, in which she received the desired trophies in the form of lands. Her foreign policy is considered by many to this day to be immoral and hypocritical. But the woman managed to go down in Russian history as a powerful monarch who became an example of patriotism for future generations of the country, despite the absence of even a drop of Russian blood in her.

Personal life

The personal life of Catherine II is vibrant and arouses interest to this day. Already in her youth, the Empress became committed to “free love,” which turned out to be a consequence of her unsuccessful marriage to Peter III.

Romance novels Catherine the Great is marked by a series of scandals, and the list of her favorites contains 23 names, as evidenced by the research of authoritative “Catherine scholars.” The institution of favoritism had a negative impact on the government structure of that time. He contributed to corruption, poor personnel decisions and a breakdown in morals.

The most famous lovers of the monarch were Alexander Lanskoy, Grigory Potemkin and Platon Zubov, who at the age of 20 became the favorite of 60-year-old Catherine the Great. Researchers do not rule out that the empress’s love affairs were her kind of weapon, with the help of which she carried out her activities on the royal throne.

It is known that Catherine the Great had three children - a son from her legal husband Peter III - Pavel Petrovich, Alexey Bobrinsky, born from Orlov, and a daughter Anna Petrovna, who died of illness at the age of one.

The empress devoted the twilight years of her life to caring for her grandchildren and heirs, as she had strained relations with her son Paul. She wanted to transfer power and the crown to her eldest grandson, whom she personally prepared for the royal throne. But her plans were not destined to happen, since her legal heir learned about his mother’s plan and carefully prepared for the fight for the throne. In the future, the empress’s beloved grandson nevertheless ascended the throne, becoming Emperor Alexander I.

Catherine the Great tried to remain unpretentious in everyday life; she was indifferent to fashionable clothes, but was fond of needlework, wood and bone carving. Every day she devoted her afternoon time to her favorite pastime. The Empress herself embroidered, knitted, and once personally made a pattern for a suit for her grandson Alexander. The queen had a literary gift, which she realized in writing plays for the court theater.

Despite the fact that in her youth the Empress converted to Orthodoxy, she was interested in the ideas of Buddhism. Catherine established the position of head of the Lamaist Church of Eastern Siberia and Transbaikalia. The ruler was officially recognized as the embodiment of the enlightened being of the Eastern religion - White Tara.

Death

The death of Catherine II occurred according to the new style on November 17, 1796. The Empress died from a severe stroke; she tossed about in agony for 12 hours and, without regaining consciousness, passed away in agony. She was buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg. The tombstone bears an epitaph written by herself.

After ascending the throne, Paul I destroyed most of his mother's heritage. In addition, the external debt of the state was discovered, which became a burden on subsequent rulers and was repaid only at the end of the 19th century.

Memory

More than 15 monuments were erected in honor of the empress in St. Petersburg, Simferopol, Sevastopol, Krasnodar and other cities of the Russian Empire. Later, many of the pedestals were lost. Since Catherine contributed to the spread of paper money, her portrait later adorned the 100-ruble banknote during the reign.

The memory of the great empress was repeatedly immortalized in literary works Russian and foreign writers - and other stars of Russian and foreign cinema.

In 2015, the fascinating TV series “” started airing in Russia. For his script, facts were taken from the diaries of the queen herself, who turned out to be a “male ruler” by nature, and not a feminine mother and wife. She appeared in the image of an empress.

Movies

• 1934 – “The Loose Empress”
• 1953 – “Admiral Ushakov”
• 1986 – “Mikhailo Lomonosov”
• 1990 – “The Tsar’s Hunt”
• 1992 – “Dreams about Russia”
• 2002 – “Evenings on a farm near Dikanka”
• 2015 – “Great”
• 2018 – “Bloody Lady”

Doctor of Historical Sciences M.RAKHMATULLIN.

Over the long decades of the Soviet era, the history of the reign of Catherine II was presented with obvious bias, and the image of the empress herself was deliberately distorted. From the pages of a few publications appears a cunning and vain German princess, who insidiously seized the Russian throne and was most concerned with satisfying her sensual desires. Such judgments are based either on an openly politicized motive, or on the purely emotional memories of her contemporaries, or, finally, on the tendentious intent of her enemies (especially among her foreign opponents), who tried to discredit the empress’s tough and consistent defense of Russia’s national interests. But Voltaire, in one of his letters to Catherine II, called her the “Northern Semiramis”, likening her to the heroine of Greek mythology, whose name is associated with the creation of one of the seven wonders of the world - the Hanging Gardens. Thus, the great philosopher expressed his admiration for the empress’s efforts to transform Russia and her wise rule. This essay attempts to impartially talk about the affairs and personality of Catherine II. “I accomplished my task quite well.”

Crowned Catherine II in all the splendor of her coronation attire. The coronation, according to tradition, took place in Moscow on September 22, 1762.

Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, who reigned from 1741 to 1761. Portrait of the mid-18th century.

Peter I married his eldest daughter, Tsarevna Anna Petrovna, to the Duke of Holstein, Karl-Friedrich. Their son became the heir to the Russian throne, Peter Fedorovich.

Catherine II's mother Johanna Elisabeth of Anhalt-Zerbst, who tried to intrigue secretly from Russia in favor of the Prussian king.

Prussian King Frederick II, whom the young Russian heir tried to imitate in everything.

Science and life // Illustrations

Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna and Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich. Their marriage turned out to be extremely unsuccessful.

Count Grigory Orlov is one of the active organizers and executors of the palace coup that elevated Catherine to the throne.

The very young princess Ekaterina Romanovna Dashkova took the most ardent part in the coup of June 1762.

Family portrait of the royal couple, taken shortly after Peter III ascended the throne. Next to his parents is the young heir Pavel in oriental costume.

Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, in which dignitaries and nobles took the oath to Empress Catherine II.

The future Russian Empress Catherine II Alekseevna, nee Sophia Frederica Augusta, Princess of Anhaltzerbst, was born on April 21 (May 2), 1729 in the then provincial Stettin (Prussia). Her father, the unremarkable Prince Christian August, made a good career through devoted service to the Prussian king: regiment commander, commandant of Stettin, governor. In 1727 (he was then 42 years old) he married the 16-year-old Holstein-Gottorp princess Johanna Elisabeth.

The somewhat eccentric princess, who had an insatiable passion for entertainment and short trips with her numerous and, unlike her, rich relatives, did not put family concerns in first place. Among her five children, her first-born daughter Fikhen (that’s what everyone in the family called Sofia Frederica) was not her favorite - they were expecting a son. “My birth was not particularly joyfully welcomed,” Catherine would later write in her Notes. The power-hungry and strict parent, out of a desire to “knock out her pride,” often rewarded her daughter with slaps in the face for innocent childish pranks and unchildish stubbornness of character. Little Fikhen found solace in her good-natured father. Constantly busy in the service and practically not interfering in the upbringing of his children, he nevertheless became for them an example of conscientious service in the public sphere. “I have never met a more honest person, both in terms of principles and in relation to actions,” Catherine will say about her father at a time when she had already gotten to know people well.

The lack of financial resources did not allow parents to hire expensive, experienced teachers and governesses. And here fate smiled generously on Sofia Frederica. After changing several careless governesses, the French emigrant Elisabeth Cardel (nicknamed Babet) became her kind mentor. As Catherine II later wrote about her, she “knew almost everything without learning anything; she knew all the comedies and tragedies like the back of her hand and was very funny.” The pupil’s heartfelt review paints Babet as “a model of virtue and prudence - she had a naturally exalted soul, a developed mind, an excellent heart; she was patient, meek, cheerful, fair, constant.”

Perhaps the main merit of the clever Kardel, who had an exceptionally balanced character, can be called the fact that she inspired the stubborn and secretive at first (the fruits of her previous upbringing) Fikhen to read, in which the capricious and wayward princess found true pleasure. A natural consequence of this hobby was the precocious girl’s soon-to-be interest in serious works of philosophical content. It is no coincidence that already in 1744, one of the enlightened friends of the family, the Swedish Count Güllenborg, jokingly, but not without reason, called Fickhen a “fifteen-year-old philosopher.” It is curious that Catherine II herself admitted that her acquisition of “intelligence and virtues” was greatly facilitated by the conviction instilled by her mother, “as if I were completely ugly,” which kept the princess from empty social entertainments. Meanwhile, one of her contemporaries recalls: “She was perfectly built, from infancy she was distinguished by a noble bearing and was taller than her years. Her facial expression was not beautiful, but very pleasant, and her open gaze and amiable smile made her whole figure very attractive.”

However, the future fate of Sophia (like many later German princesses) was determined not by her personal merits, but by the dynastic situation in Russia. The childless Empress Elizaveta Petrovna immediately after her accession began to look for an heir worthy of the Russian throne. The choice fell on the only direct successor of the family of Peter the Great, his grandson - Karl Peter Ulrich. The son of Peter I's eldest daughter Anna and Duke of Holstein-Gottorp Karl Friedrich was left an orphan at the age of 11. The prince was educated by pedantic German teachers, led by the pathologically cruel marshal Count Otto von Brümmer. The ducal son, frail from birth, was sometimes kept from hand to mouth, and for any offense he was forced to stand on his knees for hours on peas, often and painfully whipped. “I order you to be whipped so much,” Brummer began to shout, “that the dogs will lick your blood.” The boy found an outlet in his passion for music, becoming addicted to the pitiful-sounding violin. His other passion was playing with tin soldiers.

The humiliation to which he was subjected day after day produced results: the prince, as contemporaries note, became “hot-tempered, false, loved to brag, and learned to lie.” He grew up to be a cowardly, secretive, capricious beyond measure and a man who thought a lot about himself. Here is a laconic portrait of Peter Ulrich, drawn by our brilliant historian V.O. Klyuchevsky: “His way of thinking and actions gave the impression of something surprisingly half-thought out and unfinished. He looked at serious things with a child’s gaze, and treated children’s undertakings with the seriousness of a mature husband. He looked like a child who imagined himself to be an adult; in fact, he was an adult who remained a child forever."

Such a “worthy” heir to the Russian throne was hastily delivered to St. Petersburg in January 1742 (so that he would not be intercepted by the Swedes, whose king he could also become by his pedigree). In November of the same year, the prince was converted to Orthodoxy against his will and named Peter Fedorovich. But in his soul he always remained a devout German Lutheran, who showed no desire to master the language of his new homeland to any degree. In addition, the heir was not lucky with his studies and upbringing in St. Petersburg. His main mentor, academician Yakov Shtelin, completely lacked any pedagogical talents, and he, seeing the student’s amazing inability and indifference, preferred to please the constant whims of the undergrowth rather than teach him properly the mind.

Meanwhile, 14-year-old Pyotr Fedorovich has already found a bride. What was decisive when the Russian court chose Princess Sofia? The Saxon resident Pezold wrote about this: although she is “from a noble, but such a small family,” she will be an obedient wife without any pretensions to participation in big politics. Elizaveta Petrovna’s elegiac memories of her failed marriage with her mother Sophia’s elder brother, Karl August (shortly before the wedding, he died of smallpox), and the portraits of the pretty princess delivered to the empress, whom everyone “liked at first sight” also played a role in this. "(as Catherine II would write in her Notes without false modesty).

At the end of 1743, Princess Sophia was invited (with Russian money) to St. Petersburg, where she arrived, accompanied by her mother, in February of the following year. From there they headed to Moscow, where the royal court was located at that time, and on the eve of Peter Fedorovich’s birthday (February 9), a very pretty and dressed-up (with the same money) bride appeared before the Empress and the Grand Duke. J. Shtelin writes about Elizaveta Petrovna’s sincere delight at the sight of Sofia. And the mature beauty, stature and greatness of the Russian queen made an indelible impression on the young provincial princess. It was as if the betrothed also liked each other. In any case, the mother of the future bride wrote to her husband that “the Grand Duke loves her.” Fikhen herself assessed everything more soberly: “To tell the truth, I liked the Russian crown more than him (the groom. - M.R.) person".

Indeed, the idyll, if it arose at the beginning, did not last long. Further communication between the Grand Duke and the princess showed a complete dissimilarity in both characters and interests, and in appearance they were strikingly different from each other: the lanky, narrow-shouldered and frail groom was even more inferior compared to the unusually attractive bride. When the Grand Duke suffered from smallpox, his face was so disfigured by fresh scars that Sophia, seeing the heir, could not restrain herself and was frankly horrified. However, the main thing was something else: the stunning infantilism of Pyotr Fedorovich was opposed by the active, purposeful, ambitious nature of Princess Sofia Frederica, who knew her worth, named in Russia in honor of the mother of Empress Elizabeth Ekaterina (Alekseevna). This happened with her adoption of Orthodoxy on June 28, 1744. The Empress gave the convert noble gifts - a diamond cufflink and a necklace worth 150 thousand rubles. The next day, the official betrothal took place, bringing Catherine the titles of Grand Duchess and Imperial Highness.

Assessing later the situation that arose in the spring of 1744, when Empress Elizabeth, having learned about the frivolous attempts of Sophia’s mother, prone to intrigue, Princess Johanna Elizabeth, to act (secretly from the Russian court) in the interests of the Prussian king Frederick II, almost sent her and her daughter back , “to his home” (which the groom, as the bride sensitively perceived, would probably have rejoiced), Catherine expressed her feelings like this: “He was almost indifferent to me, but the Russian crown was not indifferent to me.”

On August 21, 1745, ten days of wedding ceremonies began. Magnificent balls, masquerades, fireworks, a sea of ​​wine and mountains of treats for the common people on Admiralty Square in St. Petersburg exceeded all expectations. However family life The newlyweds began with disappointments. As Catherine herself writes, her husband, who had a hearty dinner that evening, “lay down next to me, dozed off and slept safely until the morning.” And so it went on from night to night, from month to month, from year to year. Pyotr Fedorovich, as before the wedding, selflessly played with dolls, trained (or rather, tortured) a pack of his dogs, organized daily shows for an amusing company of court gentlemen of the same age, and at night he enthusiastically taught his wife “gun execution,” bringing her to complete exhaustion. It was then that he first discovered an excessive addiction to wine and tobacco.

It is not surprising that Catherine began to experience physical disgust for her nominal husband, finding solace in reading a wide variety of serious books and horse riding (she used to spend up to 13 hours a day on horseback). As she recalled, the famous “Annals” of Tacitus had a strong influence on the formation of her personality, and the newest work of the French educator Charles Louis Montesquieu “On the Spirit of Laws” became a reference book for her. She was absorbed in studying the works of French encyclopedists and already at that time she was intellectually superior to everyone around her.

Meanwhile, the aging Empress Elizaveta Petrovna was waiting for an heir and blamed Catherine for the fact that he did not appear. In the end, the empress, at the prompting of her confidants, arranged a medical examination of the couple, the results of which we learn from the reports of foreign diplomats: “The Grand Duke was unable to have children due to an obstacle that is eliminated among eastern peoples by circumcision, but which he considered incurable.” The news of this plunged Elizaveta Petrovna into shock. “Struck by this news, like a thunderclap,” writes one of the eyewitnesses, “Elizabeth seemed speechless, could not utter a word for a long time, and finally began to sob.”

However, tears did not prevent the empress from agreeing to an immediate operation, and in case of failure, she ordered to find a suitable “gentleman” to play the role of the father of the unborn child. He became “handsome Serge,” 26-year-old chamberlain Sergei Vasilyevich Saltykov. After two miscarriages (in 1752 and 1753), on September 20, 1754, Catherine gave birth to the heir to the throne, named Pavel Petrovich. True, evil tongues at court almost said out loud that the child should be called Sergeevich. Pyotr Fedorovich, who had by that time successfully recovered from his illness, also doubted his paternity: “God knows where my wife gets her pregnancy from, I don’t really know if this is my child and should I take it personally?”

Time, meanwhile, showed the groundlessness of suspicions. Pavel inherited not only the specific features of Pyotr Fedorovich's appearance, but, more importantly, the features of his character - including mental instability, irritability, a tendency to unpredictable actions and an irrepressible love for the meaningless drill of soldiers.

Immediately after birth, the heir was separated from his mother and placed under the care of nannies, and Sergei Saltykov was sent from Catherine, who was in love with him, to Sweden on an invented diplomatic mission. As for the grand ducal couple, Elizaveta Petrovna, having received the long-awaited heir, lost her former interest in her. With her nephew, because of his unbearable pranks * and stupid antics, she could not stay “even a quarter of an hour without feeling disgust, anger or grief.” For example, he drilled holes in the wall of the room where the aunt-empress received her favorite Alexei Razumovsky, and not only observed what was happening there himself, but also invited “friends” from his entourage to look through the peephole. One can imagine the power of Elizaveta Petrovna’s anger when she learned about the prank. From now on, the Empress Aunt often calls him in her hearts a fool, a freak, or even a “damned nephew.” In such a situation, Ekaterina Alekseevna, who provided the heir to the throne, could calmly reflect on her future fate.

On August 30, 1756, the twenty-year-old Grand Duchess informed the English ambassador to Russia, Sir Charles Herbert Williams, with whom she was in secret correspondence, that she had decided to “perish or reign.” The life goals of young Catherine in Russia are simple: to please the Grand Duke, to please the Empress, to please the people. Recalling this time, she wrote: “Truly, I did not neglect anything in order to achieve this: obsequiousness, humility, respect, the desire to please, the desire to do the right thing, sincere affection - everything on my part was constantly used from 1744 to 1761 I admit that when I lost hope of success in the first point, I redoubled my efforts to complete the last two; it seemed to me that more than once I succeeded in the second; the third was a success for me in its entirety, without any limitation by any time, and, therefore, I think I have performed my task quite well."

The methods by which Catherine acquired the “power of attorney of the Russians” did not contain anything original and, in their simplicity, corresponded perfectly to the mental attitude and level of enlightenment of the St. Petersburg high society. Let's listen to her herself: “They attribute this to deep intelligence and a long study of my situation. Not at all! I owe this to Russian old women<...>And in ceremonial meetings, and at simple gatherings and parties, I approached old women, sat down next to them, asked about their health, advised what remedies to use in case of illness, patiently listened to their endless stories about their young years, about current boredom, about frivolity of young people; I myself asked their advice in various matters and then sincerely thanked them. I knew the names of their moseks, lapdogs, parrots, fools; knew when which of these ladies had a birthday. On this day, my valet came to her, congratulated her on my behalf and brought her flowers and fruits from the Oranienbaum greenhouses. Less than two years had passed before the warmest praise for my mind and heart was heard from all sides and spread throughout all of Russia. In the simplest and most innocent way, I gained great fame for myself, and when the conversation came up about taking the Russian throne, a significant majority found myself on my side.”

On December 25, 1761, after a long illness, Empress Elizabeth Petrovna passed away. Senator Trubetskoy, who announced this long-awaited news, immediately proclaimed the accession to the throne of Emperor Peter III. As the wonderful historian S. M. Solovyov writes, “the answer was sobs and groans throughout the entire palace<...>The majority greeted the new reign gloomily: they knew the character of the new sovereign and did not expect anything good from him." Catherine, even if she had the intention, as she herself recalls, "save the state from that destruction, the danger of which was forced to foresee all the moral and physical qualities of this sovereign." , then, being at that time in the fifth month of pregnancy, she could practically not actively intervene in the course of events.

Perhaps this was for the best for her - during the six months of his reign, Peter III managed to turn against himself to such an extent metropolitan society and the nobility in general, who practically opened the way to power for his wife. Moreover, the attitude towards him was not changed either by the abolition of the hated Secret Chancellery, which led to general rejoicing, with its dungeons filled with prisoners with only one notorious cry: “The sovereign’s word and deed!” compulsory public service and giving them freedom to choose their place of residence, occupation and the right to travel abroad. The last act caused such a fit of enthusiasm among the nobility that the Senate even intended to erect a monument made of pure gold to the Tsar-Benefactor. However, the euphoria did not last long - everything was outweighed by the extremely unpopular actions of the emperor in society, which greatly affected the national dignity of the Russian people.

Peter III's deliberately advertised adoration of the Prussian king Frederick II was subjected to angry condemnation. He loudly proclaimed himself his vassal, for which he received the popular nickname “Friedrich’s monkey.” The degree of public discontent jumped especially sharply when Peter III made peace with Prussia and returned to it the lands conquered with the blood of Russian soldiers without any compensation. This step practically nullified all the successes of the Seven Years' War for Russia.

Peter III managed to turn the clergy against himself, since, by his decree of March 21, 1762, they began to hastily implement the decision taken under Elizabeth Petrovna on the secularization of church lands: the treasury, devastated by many years of war, required replenishment. Moreover, the new tsar threatened to deprive the clergy of their usual magnificent vestments, replacing them with black pastoral robes, and to shave off the priests’ beards.

The addiction to wine did not add to the glory of the new emperor. It did not go unnoticed how extremely cynically he behaved in the days of mournful farewell to the late empress, allowing obscene antics, jokes, loud laughter at her coffin... According to contemporaries, Peter III did not have “a more cruel enemy” in these days than himself, because he does not neglect anything that could harm him." This is confirmed by Catherine: her husband “in the entire empire had no more fierce enemy than himself.” As we see, Peter III thoroughly prepared the ground for the coup.

It is difficult to say exactly when the specific outlines of the conspiracy appeared. With a high degree of probability, its occurrence can be attributed to April 1762, when Catherine, after giving birth, received the physical opportunity for real action. The final decision on the conspiracy, apparently, was confirmed after the family scandal that happened in early June. At one of the gala dinners, Peter III, in the presence of foreign ambassadors and about 500 guests, publicly called his wife a fool several times in a row. Then came the order to the adjutant to arrest his wife. And only the persistent persuasion of Prince George Ludwig of Holstein (he was the uncle of the imperial couple) extinguished the conflict. But they did not change the intention of Peter III by any means to free himself from his wife and fulfill his long-standing desire - to marry his favorite, Elizaveta Romanovna Vorontsova. According to reviews from people close to Peter, she “sweared like a soldier, squinted, smelled bad and spat when talking.” Pockmarked, fat, with an exorbitant bust, she was exactly the type of woman that Pyotr Fedorovich liked, who loudly called his girlfriend “Romanova” during drinking sessions. Catherine was threatened with imminent tonsure as a nun.

There was no time left to organize a classic conspiracy with lengthy preparation and thinking through all the details. Everything was decided according to the situation, almost at the level of improvisation, although compensated by the decisive actions of Ekaterina Alekseevna’s supporters. Among them was her secret admirer, Ukrainian Hetman K. G. Razumovsky, at the same time the commander of the Izmailovsky regiment, a favorite of the guards. Those close to Peter III, Chief Prosecutor A. I. Glebov, Field Chief General A. N. Vilboa, Police Director Baron N. A. Korf, as well as Chief General M. N. also showed obvious sympathy for her. The 18-year-old, unusually energetic and girlishly faithful friendship with Catherine, Princess E.R. Dashkova (Peter III’s favorite was her sister), who had extensive connections in the world thanks to her closeness to N.I. Panin and the fact that Chancellor M.I. Vorontsov was her uncle.

It was through the favorite's sister, who did not arouse any suspicion, that officers of the Preobrazhensky Regiment - P. B. Passek, S. A. Bredikhin, brothers Alexander and Nikolai Roslavlev - were attracted to participate in the coup. Through other reliable channels, connections were established with other energetic young guards officers. All of them paved Catherine a relatively easy path to the throne. Among them, the most active and active - “who stood out from the crowd of comrades for his beauty, strength, dash, and sociability” - 27-year-old Grigory Grigorievich Orlov (who had long been in a love affair with Catherine - the boy born to her in April 1762 was their son Alexei). Catherine's favorite was supported in everything by his two equally dashing guards brothers - Alexey and Fedor. It was the three Orlov brothers who were actually the mainspring of the conspiracy.

In the Horse Guards, “everything was directed prudently, boldly and actively” by the future favorite of Catherine II, 22-year-old non-commissioned officer G. A. Potemkin and his same age as F. A. Khitrovo. By the end of June, according to Catherine, her “accomplices” in the guard included up to 40 officers and about 10 thousand privates. One of the main inspirers of the conspiracy was the tutor of Tsarevich Pavel N.I. Panin. True, he pursued goals different from Catherine’s: the removal of Peter Fedorovich from power and the establishment of a regency under his pupil, the young Tsar Pavel Petrovich. Catherine knows about this, and, although such a plan is absolutely unacceptable for her, she, not wanting to fragment the forces, when talking with Panin, limits herself to a non-committal phrase: “It is nicer for me to be a mother than the wife of a ruler.”

An incident hastened the fall of Peter III: a reckless decision to start a war with Denmark (with a completely empty treasury) and command the troops himself, although the emperor’s inability to do military work was the talk of the town. His interests here were limited to a love of colorful uniforms, endless drills and the adoption of rude soldierly manners, which he considered an indicator of masculinity. Even the urgent advice of his idol Frederick II - not to go to the theater of military operations before the coronation - had no effect on Peter. And now the guard, spoiled under Empress Elizabeth Petrovna by the free life of the capital, and now, at the whim of the tsar, dressed in the hated Prussian-style uniforms, receives an order to urgently prepare for a campaign that does not at all meet the interests of Russia.

The immediate signal for the start of the conspirators' actions was the accidental arrest on the evening of June 27 of one of the conspirators, Captain Passek. The danger was great. Alexey Orlov and guards lieutenant Vasily Bibikov on the night of June 28 hastily galloped to Peterhof, where Catherine was. The brothers Grigory and Fyodor, who remained in St. Petersburg, prepared everything for a proper “royal” meeting in the capital. At six o’clock in the morning on June 28, Alexey Orlov woke up Catherine with the words: “It’s time to get up: everything is ready for your proclamation.” "How? What?" - says Ekaterina, half asleep. “Passek has been arrested,” was A. Orlov’s answer.

And now the hesitations are cast aside, Catherine and the maid of honor get into the carriage in which Orlov arrived. V.I. Bibikov and the chamberlain Shkurin sit at the back, and Alexey Orlov sits on the box next to the coachman. Five versts from the capital they are met by Grigory Orlov. Catherine transfers into his carriage with fresh horses. In front of the barracks of the Izmailovsky Regiment, the guards are delighted to take the oath to the new empress. Then the carriage with Catherine and a crowd of soldiers, led by a priest with a cross, head to the Semenovsky regiment, which greeted Catherine with a thunderous “Hurray!” Accompanied by troops, she goes to the Kazan Cathedral, where a prayer service immediately begins and at the litanies “the autocratic Empress Ekaterina Alekseevna and the heir to the Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich were proclaimed.” From the cathedral, Catherine, already an empress, goes to the Winter Palace. Here, the guardsmen of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, who were a little late and terribly upset by this, joined the two guard regiments. By noon, army units also arrived.

Meanwhile, members of the Senate and Synod and other high officials of the state are already crowding the Winter Palace. Without any delay, they took the oath to the Empress according to a text hastily compiled by the future Secretary of State of Catherine II G. N. Teplov. The Manifesto on Catherine’s accession to the throne “at the request of all our subjects” was also published. Residents of the northern capital are rejoicing; wine flows like a river at public expense from the cellars of private wine merchants. Inflamed by the drink, the common people are having fun and waiting for good deeds from the new queen. But she has no time for them yet. To the exclamations of "Hurray!" The Danish campaign was cancelled. To attract the fleet to his side, a reliable person was sent to Kronstadt - Admiral I. L. Talyzin. Decrees on the change of power were prudently sent to the part of the Russian army located in Pomerania.

What about Peter III? Did he suspect the threat of a coup and what was happening in his inner circle on the ill-fated day of June 28? The surviving documentary evidence clearly shows that he did not even think about the possibility of a coup, confident in the love of his subjects. Hence his disregard for the previously received, admittedly vague, warnings.

Having sat at a late dinner the day before, Peter arrives in Peterhof at noon on June 28 to celebrate his upcoming name day. And he discovers that Catherine is not in Monplaisir - she unexpectedly left for St. Petersburg. Messengers were urgently sent to the city - N. Yu. Trubetskoy and A. I. Shuvalov (one was colonel of the Semenovsky regiment, the other of the Preobrazhensky regiment). However, neither one nor the other returned, swearing allegiance to Catherine without hesitation. But the disappearance of the messengers did not give Peter decisiveness, who from the very beginning was morally crushed by the complete, in his opinion, hopelessness of the situation. Finally, the decision was made to move to Kronstadt: according to a report from the commandant of the fortress P.A. Devier, they were supposedly ready to receive the emperor. But while Peter and his people were sailing to Kronstadt, Talyzin had already arrived there and, to the joy of the garrison, led everyone to the oath of allegiance to Empress Catherine II. Therefore, the flotilla of the deposed emperor (one galley and one yacht) that approached the fortress in the first hour of the night was forced to turn back to Oranienbaum. Peter also did not accept the advice of the elderly Count B. Kh. Minich, returned from exile, to act “like a king”, without delaying an hour, go to the troops in Revel and move with them to St. Petersburg.

And at this time, Catherine once again demonstrates her determination by ordering up to 14 thousand troops with artillery to be drawn to Peterhof. The task of the conspirators who seized the throne is complex and at the same time simple: to achieve the “voluntary” decent abdication of Peter from the throne. And on June 29, General M.L. Izmailov delivers to Catherine a pitiful message from Peter III asking for forgiveness and renouncing his rights to the throne. He also expressed his readiness (if allowed) together with E.R. Vorontsova, adjutant A.V. Gudovich, a violin and his beloved pug to go to live in Holstein, if only he was allocated a boarding house sufficient for a comfortable existence. They demanded from Peter “a written and handwritten certificate” that he renounced the throne “voluntarily and spontaneously.” Peter agreed to everything and humbly declared in writing “to the whole world solemnly”: “I renounce the government of the Russian state for my entire life.”

By noon, Peter was taken under arrest, taken to Peterhof, and then transferred to Ropsha - a small country palace 27 versts from Petersburg. Here he was placed “under a strong guard,” supposedly until the premises in Shlisselburg were ready. Alexey Orlov was appointed as the main “guard.” So, the entire coup, which did not shed a single drop of blood, took less than two days - June 28 and 29. Frederick II later, in a conversation with the French envoy in St. Petersburg, Count L.-F. Segur gave the following review of the events in Russia: “The lack of courage in Peter III ruined him: he allowed himself to be dethroned like a child being sent to bed".

In the current situation, the physical elimination of Peter was the surest and most trouble-free solution to the problem. As if ordered, this is exactly what happened. On the seventh day after the coup, under circumstances that have not yet been fully clarified, Peter III was killed. It was officially announced to the people that Pyotr Fedorovich died from hemorrhoidal colic, which happened “by the will of divine Providence.”

Naturally, contemporaries, as well as historians later, were keenly interested in the question of Catherine’s involvement in this tragedy. There are different opinions on this matter, but they are all based on guesses and assumptions, and there are simply no facts incriminating Catherine of this crime. Apparently, the French envoy Beranger was right when, hot on the heels of the events, he wrote: “I do not suspect in this princess such a terrible soul as to think that she participated in the death of the king, but since the deepest secret will probably always be hidden from the public information about the real author of this terrible murder, suspicion and infamy will remain with the empress.”

A. I. Herzen spoke more definitely: “It is very likely that Catherine did not give the order to kill Peter III. We know from Shakespeare how these orders are given - with a glance, a hint, silence.” It is important to note here that all participants in the “accidental” (as A. Orlov explained in his repentant note to the Empress) murder of the deposed emperor not only did not suffer any punishment, but were then superbly rewarded with money and serf souls. Thus, Catherine, willingly or unwillingly, took this grave sin upon herself. Perhaps this is why the empress showed no less mercy towards her recent enemies: practically none of them were not only sent into exile, according to the established Russian tradition, but were not punished at all. Even Peter’s mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova was only quietly installed in her father’s house. Moreover, Catherine II subsequently became the godmother of her first-born. Truly, generosity and forbearance are the faithful weapons of the strong, always bringing them glory and loyal admirers.

On July 6, 1762, the Manifesto signed by Catherine on her accession to the throne was announced in the Senate. On September 22, a solemn coronation took place in Moscow, which greeted her coolly. Thus began the 34-year reign of Catherine II.

Starting to characterize the long reign of Catherine II and her personality, let us pay attention to one paradoxical fact: the illegality of Catherine’s accession to the throne also had its undoubted advantages, especially in the first years of her reign, when she “had to atone for what that legitimate kings have without labor. This very necessity was partly the spring of her great and brilliant deeds.” Not only the famous writer and memoirist N.I. Grech, to whom the above judgment belongs, thought so. In this case, he only reflected the opinion of the educated part of society. V. O. Klyuchevsky, speaking about the tasks facing Catherine, who took, but did not receive, power by law, and noting the extreme confusion of the situation in Russia after the coup, emphasized the same point: “Power seized always has the character of a bill of exchange, according to which are waiting for payment, and according to the mood of Russian society, Catherine had to justify various and discordant expectations.” Looking ahead, let's say that this bill was repaid on time.

Historical literature has long noted the main contradiction of Catherine’s “age of Enlightenment” (though not shared by all experts): the empress “wanted so much enlightenment and such light that she would not be afraid of its “inevitable consequences.” In other words, Catherine II found herself faced with an explosive dilemma: enlightenment or slavery? And since she never resolved this problem, leaving serfdom intact, it seemed to give rise to subsequent confusion about why she did not do this. But the above formula (“enlightenment - slavery”) causes. natural questions: were there appropriate conditions in Russia at that time for the abolition of “slavery” and was the society of that time aware of the need for a radical change in social relations in the country? Let’s try to answer them.

In determining the course of her domestic policy, Catherine relied primarily on the book knowledge she acquired. But not only that. At first, the empress’s transformative fervor was fueled by her initial assessment of Russia as “an unplowed country,” where it was best to carry out all sorts of reforms. That is why on August 8, 1762, only in the sixth week of her reign, Catherine II, by a special decree, confirmed the March decree of Peter III banning the purchase of serfs by industrialists. Owners of factories and mines must henceforth be content with the labor of civilian workers paid under a contract. It seems that she generally had the intention of abolishing forced labor and ridding the country of the “shame of slavery,” as required by the spirit of Montesquieu’s teachings. But her intention was not yet strong enough to decide on such a revolutionary step. In addition, Catherine did not yet have any complete understanding of Russian reality. On the other hand, as one of the smartest people of Pushkin’s era, Prince P. A. Vyazemsky, noted, when the actions of Catherine II had not yet become “a legend of ancient times,” she “loved reforms, but gradual ones, transformations, but not steep ones,” without breaking.

By 1765, Catherine II came to the idea of ​​​​the need to convene the Statutory Commission to bring the existing legislation “into better order” and in order to reliably find out “the needs and sensitive shortcomings of our people.” Let us remind you that attempts to convene the current legislative body - the Legislative Commission - have been made more than once before, but all of them, for various reasons, ended in failure. Taking this into account, Catherine, endowed with a remarkable mind, resorted to an act unprecedented in the history of Russia: she personally drew up a special “Order”, which was a detailed program of action for the Commission.

As follows from a letter to Voltaire, she believed that the Russian people are “excellent soil on which good seed grows quickly; but we also need axioms that are indisputably recognized as true.” And these axioms are known - the ideas of the Enlightenment, which she laid as the basis for the new Russian legislation. Even V. O. Klyuchevsky specifically highlighted the main condition for the implementation of Catherine’s transformative plans, which she briefly outlined in her “Instructions”: “Russia is a European power; Peter I, introducing European morals and customs among the European people, found such conveniences as I didn’t expect it myself. The conclusion followed naturally: the axioms, which represent the last and best fruit of European thought, will find the same convenience in this people.”

In the literature about the “Nakaz”, there has long been an opinion about the purely compilative nature of this main Catherine’s political work. When justifying such judgments, they usually refer to her own words spoken to the French philosopher and educator D'Alembert: “You will see how there I robbed President Montesquieu for the benefit of my empire, without naming him.” Indeed, from the 526 articles of the “Nakaz”, divided into 20 chapters, 294 go back to the work of the famous French enlightener Montesquieu “On the Spirit of Laws”, and 108 - to the work of the Italian legal scholar Cesare Beccaria “On Crimes and Punishments”. However, this was not the case. a simple translation into the Russian style of the works of famous authors, but their creative rethinking, an attempt to apply the ideas contained in them to Russian reality.

(To be continued.)

“Her reign was successful. As a conscientious German, Catherine worked diligently for the country that gave her such a good and profitable position. She naturally saw the happiness of Russia in the greatest possible expansion of the boundaries of the Russian state. By nature she was smart and cunning, well versed in the intrigues of European diplomacy. Cunning and flexibility were the basis of what in Europe, depending on the circumstances, was called the policy of Northern Semiramis or the crimes of Moscow Messalina.” (M. Aldanov “Devil’s Bridge”)

Years of reign of Russia by Catherine the Great 1762-1796

Catherine the Second's real name was Sophia Augusta Frederika of Anhalt-Zerbst. She was the daughter of the Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, the commandant of the city of Stettin, which was located in Pomerania, a region subject to the Kingdom of Prussia (today the Polish city of Szczecin), who represented “a side line of one of the eight branches of the house of Anhalst.”

“In 1742, the Prussian king Frederick II, wanting to annoy the Saxon court, which hoped to marry his princess Maria Anna to the heir to the Russian throne, Peter Karl-Ulrich of Holstein, who suddenly became Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, began hastily looking for another bride for the Grand Duke.

The Prussian king had three German princesses in mind for this purpose: two from Hesse-Darmstadt and one from Zerbst. The latter was the most suitable in age, but Friedrich knew nothing about the fifteen-year-old bride herself. They only said that her mother, Johanna Elisabeth, led a very frivolous lifestyle and that it is unlikely that little Fike was really the daughter of the Zerbst prince Christian Augustus, who served as governor in Stetin.”

How long, short, but in the end the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna chose little Fike as a wife for her nephew Karl-Ulrich, who became Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich in Russia, the future Emperor Peter III.

Biography of Catherine II. Briefly

• 1729, April 21 (Old style) - Catherine the Second was born
• 1742, December 27 - on the advice of Frederick II, the mother of Princess Ficken (Fike) sent a letter to Elizabeth with congratulations for the New Year
• 1743, January - kind reply letter
• 1743, December 21 - Johanna Elisabeth and Ficken received a letter from Brumner, the teacher of Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, with an invitation to come to Russia

“Your Grace,” Brummer wrote meaningfully, “are too enlightened not to understand the true meaning of the impatience with which Her Imperial Majesty wishes to see you here as soon as possible, as well as your princess daughter, about whom rumor has told us so many good things.”

• 1743, December 21 - on the same day a letter from Frederick II was received in Zerbst. The Prussian king... persistently advised to go and keep the trip strictly secret (so that the Saxons would not find out ahead of time)
• 1744, February 3 - German princesses arrived in St. Petersburg
• 1744, February 9 - the future Catherine the Great and her mother arrived in Moscow, where the court was located at that moment
• 1744, February 18 - Johanna Elisabeth sent a letter to her husband with the news that their daughter was the bride of the future Russian Tsar
• 1745, June 28 - Sofia Augusta Frederica converted to Orthodoxy and new name Catherine
• 1745, August 21 - marriage of Catherine
• 1754, September 20 - Catherine gave birth to a son, heir to the throne Paul
• 1757, December 9 - Catherine gave birth to a daughter, Anna, who died 3 months later
• 1761, December 25 - Elizaveta Petrovna died. Peter the Third became Tsar

“Peter the Third was the son of the daughter of Peter I and the grandson of the sister of Charles XII. Elizabeth, having ascended the Russian throne and wanting to secure it behind her father’s line, sent Major Korf with instructions to take her nephew from Kiel and deliver him to St. Petersburg at all costs. Here the Holstein Duke Karl-Peter-Ulrich was transformed into Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich and forced to study the Russian language and the Orthodox catechism. But nature was not as favorable to him as fate... He was born and grew up as a frail child, poorly endowed with abilities. Becoming an orphan at an early age, Peter received a miserable upbringing in Holstein under the guidance of an ignorant courtier.

Humiliated and embarrassed in everything, he acquired bad tastes and habits, became irritable, cantankerous, stubborn and false, acquired a sad inclination to lie..., and in Russia he also learned to get drunk. In Holstein he was taught so poorly that he came to Russia as a 14-year-old complete ignoramus and even amazed Empress Elizabeth with his ignorance. The rapid change of circumstances and educational programs completely confused his already fragile head. Forced to learn this and that without connection and order, Peter ended up learning nothing, and the dissimilarity of the Holstein and Russian situations, the meaninglessness of the Kiel and St. Petersburg impressions completely weaned him from understanding his surroundings. ...He was fascinated by the military glory and strategic genius of Frederick II...” (V. O. Klyuchevsky “Course of Russian History”)

• 1762, April 13 - Peter made peace with Frederick. All lands seized by Russia from Prussia during the course were returned to the Germans
• 1762, May 29 - union treaty between Prussia and Russia. Russian troops were transferred to the disposal of Frederick, which caused sharp discontent among the guards

(The flag of the guard) “became the empress. The emperor lived badly with his wife, threatened to divorce her and even imprison her in a monastery, and in her place put a person close to him, the niece of Chancellor Count Vorontsov. Catherine stayed aloof for a long time, patiently enduring her situation and not entering into direct relations with the dissatisfied.” (Klyuchevsky)

• 1762, June 9 - at the ceremonial dinner on the occasion of the confirmation of this peace treaty, the emperor proposed a toast to the imperial family. Catherine drank her glass while sitting. When Peter asked why she did not stand up, she replied that she did not consider it necessary, since the imperial family consists entirely of the emperor, herself and their son, the heir to the throne. “And my uncles, the Holstein princes?” - Peter objected and ordered Adjutant General Gudovich, who was standing behind his chair, to approach Catherine and say a swear word to her. But, fearing that Gudovich might soften this uncivil word during the transfer, Peter himself shouted it across the table for all to hear.

  The Empress burst into tears. That same evening it was ordered to arrest her, which, however, was not carried out at the request of one of Peter’s uncles, the unwitting perpetrators of this scene. From that time on, Catherine began to listen more attentively to the proposals of her friends, which were made to her, starting from the very death of Elizabeth. The enterprise was sympathized with by many people from high society in St. Petersburg, most of whom were personally offended by Peter

• 1762, June 28 - . Catherine is proclaimed empress
• 1762, June 29 - Peter the Third abdicated the throne
• 1762, July 6 - killed in prison
• 1762, September 2 - Coronation of Catherine the Second in Moscow
• 1787, January 2-July 1 -
• 1796, November 6 - death of Catherine the Great

Domestic policy of Catherine II

- Changes in central government: in 1763, the structure and powers of the Senate were streamlined
- Liquidation of the autonomy of Ukraine: liquidation of the hetmanate (1764), liquidation of the Zaporozhye Sich (1775), serfdom of the peasantry (1783)
- Further subordination of the church to the state: secularization of church and monastic lands, 900 thousand church serfs became state serfs (1764)
- Improving legislation: a decree on tolerance for schismatics (1764), the right of landowners to send peasants to hard labor (1765), the introduction of a noble monopoly on distilling (1765), a ban on peasants filing complaints against landowners (1768), the creation of separate courts for nobles, townspeople and peasants (1775), etc.
- Improving the administrative system of Russia: dividing Russia into 50 provinces instead of 20, dividing provinces into districts, dividing power in provinces by function (administrative, judicial, financial) (1775);
- Strengthening the position of the nobility (1785):

• confirmation of all class rights and privileges of the nobility: exemption from compulsory service, from poll tax, corporal punishment; the right to unlimited disposal of estate and land together with the peasants;
• the creation of noble class institutions: district and provincial noble assemblies, which met once every three years and elected district and provincial leaders of the nobility;
• assigning the title of “noble” to the nobility.

“Catherine the Second well understood that she could stay on the throne only by pleasing the nobility and officers in every possible way - in order to prevent or at least reduce the danger of a new palace conspiracy. This is what Catherine did. Her entire internal policy boiled down to ensuring that the life of the officers at her court and in the guards units was as profitable and pleasant as possible.”

- Economic innovations: establishment of a financial commission to unify money; establishment of a commission on commerce (1763); manifesto on the general demarcation to fix land plots; establishment of the Free Economic Society to assist noble entrepreneurship (1765); financial reform: introduction of paper money - assignats (1769), creation of two assignat banks (1768), issue of the first Russian external loan (1769); establishment of the postal department (1781); permission for private individuals to open a printing house (1783)

Foreign policy of Catherine II

• 1764 - Treaty with Prussia
• 1768-1774 — Russian-Turkish War
• 1778 - Restoration of the alliance with Prussia
• 1780 - union of Russia and Denmark. and Sweden for the purpose of protecting navigation during the American Revolutionary War
• 1780 - Defensive Alliance of Russia and Austria
• 1783, April 8 -
• 1783, August 4 - establishment of a Russian protectorate over Georgia
• 1787-1791 —
• 1786, December 31 - trade agreement with France
• 1788 June - August - war with Sweden
• 1792 - severance of relations with France
• 1793, March 14 - Treaty of Friendship with England
• 1772, 1193, 1795 - participation together with Prussia and Austria in the partitions of Poland
• 1796 - war in Persia in response to the Persian invasion of Georgia

Personal life of Catherine II. Briefly

“Catherine, by nature, was neither evil nor cruel... and overly power-hungry: all her life she was invariably under the influence of successive favorites, to whom she gladly ceded her power, interfering in their disposal of the country only when they very clearly showed their inexperience, inability or stupidity: she was smarter and more experienced in business than all her lovers, with the exception of Prince Potemkin.
There was nothing excessive in Catherine’s nature, except for a strange mixture of the coarsest sensuality that grew stronger over the years with purely German, practical sentimentality. At sixty-five years old, she, as a girl, fell in love with twenty-year-old officers and sincerely believed that they were also in love with her. In her seventh decade, she cried bitter tears when it seemed to her that Platon Zubov was more reserved with her than usual.”(Mark Aldanov)

Catherine II Alekseevna the Great (nee Sophia Auguste Friederike of Anhalt-Zerbst, German Sophie Auguste Friederike von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg, in Orthodoxy Ekaterina Alekseevna; April 21 (May 2), 1729, Stettin, Prussia - November 6 (17), 1796, Winter Palace, St. Petersburg) - Empress of All Russia from 1762 to 1796.

The daughter of the Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, Catherine came to power in a palace coup that overthrew her unpopular husband Peter III from the throne.

Catherine's era was marked by the maximum enslavement of the peasants and the comprehensive expansion of the privileges of the nobility.

Under Catherine the Great, the borders of the Russian Empire were significantly expanded to the west (partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) and to the south (annexation of Novorossiya).

The system of public administration under Catherine II was reformed for the first time since that time.

Culturally, Russia finally became one of the great European powers, which was greatly facilitated by the empress herself, who was keen on literary activity, who collected masterpieces of painting and corresponded with French educators.

In general, Catherine’s policy and her reforms fit into the mainstream of enlightened absolutism of the 18th century.

Catherine II the Great (documentary)

Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born on April 21 (May 2, new style) 1729 in the then German city of Stettin, the capital of Pomerania (Pomerania). Now the city is called Szczecin, among other territories it was voluntarily transferred by the Soviet Union, following the Second World War, to Poland and is the capital of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship of Poland.

Father, Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, came from the Zerbst-Dorneburg line of the House of Anhalt and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, where the future empress was born, ran for duke of Courland, but unsuccessfully , ended his service as a Prussian field marshal. Mother - Johanna Elisabeth, from the Gottorp estate, was a cousin of the future Peter III. Johanna Elisabeth's ancestry goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, first Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.

His maternal uncle, Adolf Friedrich, was chosen as heir to the Swedish throne in 1743, which he assumed in 1751 under the name of Adolf Friedrich. Another uncle, Karl Eitinsky, according to Catherine I, was supposed to become the husband of her daughter Elizabeth, but died on the eve of the wedding celebrations.

In the family of the Duke of Zerbst, Catherine received a home education. She studied English, French and Italian, dance, music, the basics of history, geography, and theology. She grew up as a playful, inquisitive, playful girl and loved to show off her courage in front of the boys with whom she easily played on the streets of Stettin. The parents were dissatisfied with their daughter’s “boyish” behavior, but they were happy that Frederica took care of her younger sister Augusta. Her mother called her Fike or Ficken as a child (German Figchen - comes from the name Frederica, that is, “little Frederica”).

In 1743, the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, choosing a bride for her heir, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, the future Russian Emperor, remembered that on her deathbed her mother bequeathed to her to become the wife of the Holstein prince, Johanna Elisabeth’s brother. Perhaps it was this circumstance that tipped the scales in Frederica's favor; Elizabeth had previously vigorously supported the election of her uncle to the Swedish throne and exchanged portraits with her mother. In 1744, the Zerbst princess and her mother were invited to Russia to marry Pyotr Fedorovich, who was her second cousin. She first saw her future husband at Eitin Castle in 1739.

Immediately after arriving in Russia, she began to study the Russian language, history, Orthodoxy, and Russian traditions, as she sought to become more fully acquainted with Russia, which she perceived as a new homeland. Among her teachers are the famous preacher Simon Todorsky (teacher of Orthodoxy), the author of the first Russian grammar Vasily Adadurov (teacher of the Russian language) and choreographer Lange (dance teacher).

In an effort to learn Russian as quickly as possible, the future empress studied at night, sitting by an open window in the frosty air. She soon fell ill with pneumonia, and her condition was so serious that her mother suggested bringing a Lutheran pastor. Sofia, however, refused and sent for Simon of Todor. This circumstance added to her popularity at the Russian court. On June 28 (July 9), 1744, Sofia Frederica Augusta converted from Lutheranism to Orthodoxy and received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna (the same name and patronymic as Elizabeth’s mother, Catherine I), and the next day she was engaged to the future emperor.

The appearance of Sophia and her mother in St. Petersburg was accompanied by political intrigue in which her mother, Princess Zerbst, was involved. She was a fan of the King of Prussia, Frederick II, and the latter decided to use her stay at the Russian imperial court to establish his influence on Russian foreign policy. For this purpose, it was planned, through intrigue and influence on Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, to remove Chancellor Bestuzhev, who pursued an anti-Prussian policy, from affairs, and replace him with another nobleman who sympathized with Prussia. However, Bestuzhev managed to intercept letters from Princess Zerbst to Frederick II and present them to Elizaveta Petrovna. After the latter learned about the “ugly role of a Prussian spy” that Sophia’s mother played at her court, she immediately changed her attitude towards her and subjected her to disgrace. However, this did not affect the position of Sofia herself, who did not take part in this intrigue.

On August 21, 1745, at the age of sixteen, Catherine was married to Pyotr Fedorovich, who was 17 years old and who was her second cousin. During the first years of their marriage, Peter was not at all interested in his wife, and there was no marital relationship between them.

Finally, after two unsuccessful pregnancies, On September 20, 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son, Pavel.. The birth was difficult, the baby was immediately taken away from the mother by the will of the reigning Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, and Catherine was deprived of the opportunity to raise her, allowing her to see Paul only occasionally. So the Grand Duchess first saw her son only 40 days after giving birth. A number of sources claim that Paul’s true father was Catherine’s lover S.V. Saltykov (there is no direct statement about this in the “Notes” of Catherine II, but they are often interpreted this way). Others say that such rumors are unfounded, and that Peter underwent an operation that eliminated a defect that made conception impossible. The question of paternity also aroused interest among society.

After the birth of Pavel, relations with Peter and Elizaveta Petrovna completely deteriorated. Peter called his wife “spare madam” and openly took mistresses, however, without preventing Catherine from doing the same, who during this period, thanks to the efforts of the English ambassador Sir Charles Henbury Williams, had a relationship with Stanislaw Poniatowski, the future king of Poland. On December 9, 1757, Catherine gave birth to her daughter Anna, which caused strong dissatisfaction with Peter, who said at the news of a new pregnancy: “God knows why my wife became pregnant again! I’m not at all sure if this child is from me and whether I should take it personally.”

During this period, the English Ambassador Williams was a close friend and confidant of Catherine. He repeatedly provided her with significant sums in the form of loans or subsidies: only in 1750 she was given 50,000 rubles, for which there are two receipts from her; and in November 1756 she was given 44,000 rubles. In return, he received various confidential information from her - verbally and through letters, which she quite regularly wrote to him as if on behalf of a man (for purposes of secrecy). In particular, at the end of 1756, after the outbreak of the Seven Years' War with Prussia (of which England was an ally), Williams, as follows from his own dispatches, received from Catherine important information about the state of the warring Russian army and about the plan of the Russian offensive, which was his transferred to London, as well as to Berlin to the Prussian king Frederick II. After Williams left, she also received money from his successor Keith. Historians explain Catherine’s frequent appeal to the British for money by her extravagance, due to which her expenses far exceeded the amounts that were allocated from the treasury for her maintenance. In one of her letters to Williams, she promised, as a sign of gratitude, “to lead Russia to a friendly alliance with England, to give her everywhere the assistance and preference necessary for the good of all Europe and especially Russia, before their common enemy, France, whose greatness is a shame for Russia. I will learn to practice these feelings, I will base my glory on them and I will prove to the king, your sovereign, the strength of these feelings of mine.”.

Already starting in 1756, and especially during the illness of Elizabeth Petrovna, Catherine hatched a plan to remove the future emperor (her husband) from the throne through a conspiracy, which she repeatedly wrote to Williams. For these purposes, Catherine, according to the historian V. O. Klyuchevsky, “begged a loan of 10 thousand pounds sterling from the English king for gifts and bribes, pledging on her word of honor to act in the common Anglo-Russian interests, and began to think about involving the guard in the case in the event of death Elizabeth, entered into a secret agreement on this with Hetman K. Razumovsky, commander of one of the guards regiments.” Chancellor Bestuzhev, who promised Catherine assistance, was also privy to this plan for a palace coup.

At the beginning of 1758, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna suspected the commander-in-chief of the Russian army, Apraksin, with whom Catherine was on friendly terms, as well as Chancellor Bestuzhev himself, of treason. Both were arrested, interrogated and punished; however, Bestuzhev managed to destroy all his correspondence with Catherine before his arrest, which saved her from persecution and disgrace. At the same time, Williams was recalled to England. Thus, her former favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov and Dashkova.

The death of Elizabeth Petrovna (December 25, 1761) and the accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich under the name of Peter III alienated the spouses even more. Peter III began to live openly with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end of the Winter Palace. When Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, this could no longer be explained by accidental conception from her husband, since communication between the spouses had stopped completely by that time. Catherine hid her pregnancy, and when the time came to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Grigorievich Shkurin set his house on fire. A lover of such spectacles, Peter and his court left the palace to look at the fire; At this time, Catherine gave birth safely. This is how Alexey Bobrinsky was born, to whom his brother Pavel I subsequently awarded the title of count.

Having ascended the throne, Peter III carried out a number of actions that caused a negative attitude towards him from the officer corps. Thus, he concluded an unfavorable agreement for Russia with Prussia, while Russia won a number of victories over it during the Seven Years' War, and returned to it the lands captured by the Russians. At the same time, he intended, in alliance with Prussia, to oppose Denmark (Russia’s ally), in order to return Schleswig, which it had taken from Holstein, and he himself intended to go on a campaign at the head of the guard. Peter announced the sequestration of the property of the Russian Church, the abolition of monastic land ownership, and shared with those around him plans for the reform of church rituals. Supporters of the coup also accused Peter III of ignorance, dementia, dislike for Russia, and complete inability to rule. Against his background, Catherine looked favorably - an intelligent, well-read, pious and benevolent wife, subjected to persecution by her husband.

After the relationship with her husband completely deteriorated and dissatisfaction with the emperor on the part of the guard intensified, Catherine decided to participate in the coup. Her comrades-in-arms, the main of whom were the Orlov brothers, sergeant Potemkin and adjutant Fyodor Khitrovo, began campaigning in the guards units and won them over to their side. The immediate cause of the start of the coup was rumors about the arrest of Catherine and the discovery and arrest of one of the participants in the conspiracy - Lieutenant Passek.

Apparently, there was some foreign participation here too. As A. Troyat and K. Waliszewski write, planning the overthrow of Peter III, Catherine turned to the French and British for money, hinting to them what she was going to do. The French were distrustful of her request to borrow 60 thousand rubles, not believing in the seriousness of her plan, but she received 100 thousand rubles from the British, which subsequently may have influenced her attitude towards England and France.

Early in the morning of June 28 (July 9), 1762, while Peter III was in Oranienbaum, Catherine, accompanied by Alexei and Grigory Orlov, arrived from Peterhof to St. Petersburg, where the guards units swore allegiance to her. Peter III, seeing the hopelessness of resistance, abdicated the throne the next day, was taken into custody and died under unclear circumstances. In her letter, Catherine once indicated that before his death Peter suffered from hemorrhoidal colic. After death (although the facts indicate that even before death - see below), Catherine ordered an autopsy to dispel suspicions of poisoning. The autopsy showed (according to Catherine) that the stomach was absolutely clean, which ruled out the presence of poison.

At the same time, as historian N.I. Pavlenko writes, “The violent death of the emperor is irrefutably confirmed by absolutely reliable sources” - Orlov’s letters to Catherine and a number of other facts. There are also facts indicating that she knew about the impending murder of Peter III. So, already on July 4, 2 days before the death of the emperor in the palace in Ropsha, Catherine sent the doctor Paulsen to him, and as Pavlenko writes, “It is indicative that Paulsen was sent to Ropsha not with medicines, but with surgical instruments for opening the body”.

After her husband's abdication, Ekaterina Alekseevna ascended the throne as reigning empress with the name Catherine II, publishing a manifesto in which the grounds for the removal of Peter were indicated as an attempt to change the state religion and peace with Prussia. To justify her own rights to the throne (and not the heir to Paul), Catherine referred to “the desire of all Our loyal subjects, obvious and unfeigned.” On September 22 (October 3), 1762, she was crowned in Moscow. As V. O. Klyuchevsky characterized her accession, “Catherine made a double takeover: she took power from her husband and did not transfer it to her son, the natural heir of his father.”.

The policy of Catherine II was characterized mainly by the preservation and development of trends laid down by her predecessors. In the middle of the reign, an administrative (provincial) reform was carried out, which determined the territorial structure of the country until 1917, as well as judicial reform. The territory of the Russian state increased significantly due to the annexation of fertile southern lands - Crimea, the Black Sea region, as well as the eastern part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, etc. The population increased from 23.2 million (in 1763) to 37.4 million (in 1796), In terms of population, Russia became the largest European country (it accounted for 20% of the European population). Catherine II formed 29 new provinces and built about 144 cities.

Klyuchevsky about the reign of Catherine the Great: “The army with 162 thousand people was strengthened to 312 thousand, the fleet, which in 1757 consisted of 21 battleships and 6 frigates, in 1790 included 67 battleships and 40 frigates and 300 rowing ships, the amount of state revenue from 16 million rubles rose to 69 million, that is, it increased more than fourfold, the success of foreign trade: the Baltic - in increasing imports and exports, from 9 million to 44 million rubles, the Black Sea, Catherine and created - from 390 thousand. 1776 to 1 million 900 thousand rubles in 1796, the growth of internal turnover was indicated by the issue of coins in the 34 years of the reign for 148 million rubles, while in the 62 previous years it was issued only for 97 million.”

Population growth was largely the result of the annexation of foreign states and territories (which were home to almost 7 million people) to Russia, often occurring against the wishes of the local population, which led to the emergence of “Polish”, “Ukrainian”, “Jewish” and other national issues , inherited by the Russian Empire from the era of Catherine II. Hundreds of villages under Catherine received the status of a city, but in fact they remained villages in appearance and occupation of the population, the same applies to a number of cities founded by her (some even existed only on paper, as evidenced by contemporaries). In addition to the issue of coins, 156 million rubles worth of paper notes were issued, which led to inflation and a significant depreciation of the ruble; therefore real growth budget revenues and other economic indicators during her reign was significantly less than nominal.

The Russian economy continued to remain agricultural. The share of the urban population has practically not increased, amounting to about 4%. At the same time, a number of cities were founded (Tiraspol, Grigoriopol, etc.), iron smelting more than doubled (for which Russia took 1st place in the world), and the number of sailing and linen manufactories increased. In total, by the end of the 18th century. there were 1,200 large enterprises in the country (in 1767 there were 663). The export of Russian goods to other European countries has increased significantly, including through the established Black Sea ports. However, in the structure of this export there were no finished products at all, only raw materials and semi-finished products, and imports were dominated by foreign industrial products. While in the West in the second half of the 18th century. The Industrial Revolution was taking place, Russian industry remained “patriarchal” and serfdom, which caused it to lag behind the Western one. Finally, in the 1770-1780s. An acute social and economic crisis broke out, which resulted in a financial crisis.

Catherine’s commitment to the ideas of the Enlightenment largely predetermined the fact that the term “enlightened absolutism” is often used to characterize the domestic policy of Catherine’s time. She actually brought some of the ideas of the Enlightenment to life.

Thus, according to Catherine, based on the works of the French philosopher, the vast Russian spaces and the severity of the climate determine the pattern and necessity of autocracy in Russia. Based on this, under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the management system was unified. However, the ideas expressed by Diderot and Voltaire, of which she was a vocal supporter, did not correspond to her domestic policy. They defended the idea that every person is born free, and advocated the equality of all people and the elimination of medieval forms of exploitation and oppressive forms of government. Contrary to these ideas, under Catherine there was a further deterioration in the position of the serfs, their exploitation intensified, and inequality grew due to the granting of even greater privileges to the nobility.

In general, historians characterize her policy as “pro-noble” and believe that, contrary to the empress’s frequent statements about her “vigilant concern for the welfare of all subjects,” the concept of the common good in the era of Catherine was the same fiction as in Russia as a whole in the 18th century.

Under Catherine, the territory of the empire was divided into provinces, many of which remained virtually unchanged until the October Revolution. The territory of Estonia and Livonia as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783. was divided into two provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. The special Baltic order, which provided for more extensive rights of local nobles to work and the personality of the peasant than those of Russian landowners, was also eliminated. Siberia was divided into three provinces: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.

Speaking about the reasons for the provincial reform under Catherine, N. I. Pavlenko writes that it was a response to the Peasant War of 1773-1775. led by Pugachev, which revealed the weakness of local authorities and their inability to cope with peasant revolts. The reform was preceded by a series of notes submitted to the government from the nobility, in which it was recommended to increase the network of institutions and “police supervisors” in the country.

Carrying out provincial reform in Left Bank Ukraine in 1783-1785. led to a change in the regimental structure (former regiments and hundreds) to the administrative division common to the Russian Empire into provinces and districts, the final establishment of serfdom and the equalization of the rights of the Cossack elders with the Russian nobility. With the conclusion of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty (1774), Russia gained access to the Black Sea and Crimea.

Thus, there was no longer a need to maintain the special rights and management system of the Zaporozhye Cossacks. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with the authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, as well as in connection with the Cossacks’ support for the Pugachev uprising, Catherine II ordered the disbandment of the Zaporozhye Sich, which was carried out by order of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporozhye Cossacks by General Pyotr Tekeli in June 1775.

The Sich was disbanded, most of the Cossacks were disbanded, and the fortress itself was destroyed. In 1787, Catherine II, together with Potemkin, visited Crimea, where she was met by the Amazon company created for her arrival; in the same year, the Army of the Faithful Cossacks was created, which later became the Black Sea Cossack Army, and in 1792 they were granted Kuban for eternal use, where the Cossacks moved, founding the city of Ekaterinodar.

Reforms on the Don created a military civil government modeled on the provincial administrations of central Russia. In 1771, the Kalmyk Khanate was finally annexed to Russia.

The reign of Catherine II was characterized by extensive development of the economy and trade, while maintaining “patriarchal” industry and agriculture. By a decree of 1775, factories and industrial plants were recognized as property, the disposal of which does not require special permission from their superiors. In 1763, the free exchange of copper money for silver was prohibited, so as not to provoke the development of inflation. The development and revival of trade was facilitated by the emergence of new credit institutions (state bank and loan office) and the expansion of banking operations (acceptance of deposits for safekeeping was introduced in 1770). A state bank was established and the issue of paper money - banknotes - was established for the first time.

State regulation of salt prices has been introduced, which was one of the vital goods in the country. The Senate legislatively set the price of salt at 30 kopecks per pood (instead of 50 kopecks) and 10 kopecks per pood in regions where fish are mass-salted. Without introducing a state monopoly on the salt trade, Catherine hoped for increased competition and, ultimately, an improvement in the quality of the product. However, soon the price of salt was raised again. At the beginning of the reign, some monopolies were abolished: the state monopoly on trade with China, the private monopoly of the merchant Shemyakin on the import of silk, and others.

Russia's role in the global economy has increased- Russian sailing fabric began to be exported to England in large quantities, and the export of cast iron and iron to other European countries increased (consumption of cast iron on the domestic Russian market also increased significantly). But the export of raw materials increased especially strongly: timber (5 times), hemp, bristles, etc., as well as bread. The country's export volume increased from 13.9 million rubles. in 1760 to 39.6 million rubles. in 1790

Russian merchant ships began to sail in the Mediterranean Sea. However, their number was insignificant in comparison with foreign ones - only 7% of the total number of ships serving Russian foreign trade in the late 18th - early 19th centuries; the number of foreign merchant ships entering Russian ports annually during her reign increased from 1340 to 2430.

As the economic historian N.A. Rozhkov pointed out, in the structure of exports in the era of Catherine there were no finished products at all, only raw materials and semi-finished products, and 80-90% of imports were foreign industrial products, the volume of imports of which was several times higher than domestic production. Thus, the volume of domestic manufacturing production in 1773 was 2.9 million rubles, the same as in 1765, and the volume of imports in these years was about 10 million rubles.

Industry developed poorly, there were practically no technical improvements and serf labor dominated. Thus, from year to year, cloth factories could not even satisfy the needs of the army, despite the ban on selling cloth “outside”; in addition, the cloth was of poor quality, and it had to be purchased abroad. Catherine herself did not understand the significance of the Industrial Revolution taking place in the West and argued that machines (or, as she called them, “machines”) harm the state because they reduce the number of workers. Only two export industries developed rapidly - the production of cast iron and linen, but both were based on “patriarchal” methods, without the use of new technologies that were actively being introduced in the West at that time - which predetermined a severe crisis in both industries, which began shortly after the death of Catherine II .

In the field of foreign trade, Catherine’s policy consisted of a gradual transition from protectionism, characteristic of Elizabeth Petrovna, to complete liberalization of exports and imports, which, according to a number of economic historians, was a consequence of the influence of the ideas of the physiocrats. Already in the first years of the reign, a number of foreign trade monopolies and a ban on grain exports were abolished, which from that time began to grow rapidly. In 1765, the Free Economic Society was founded, which promoted the ideas of free trade and published its own magazine. In 1766, a new customs tariff was introduced, significantly reducing tariff barriers compared to the protectionist tariff of 1757 (which established protective duties of 60 to 100% or more); they were reduced even more in the customs tariff of 1782. Thus, in the “moderate protectionist” tariff of 1766, protective duties averaged 30%, and in the liberal tariff of 1782 - 10%, only for some goods rising to 20- 30%.

Agriculture, like industry, developed mainly through extensive methods (increasing the amount of arable land); The promotion of intensive agricultural methods by the Free Economic Society created under Catherine did not have much result.

From the first years of Catherine's reign, famine began to occur periodically in the village, which some contemporaries explained by chronic crop failures, but the historian M.N. Pokrovsky associated with the beginning of mass grain exports, which had previously, under Elizaveta Petrovna, been prohibited, and by the end of Catherine’s reign amounted to 1.3 million rubles. per year. Cases of mass ruin of peasants have become more frequent. The famines became especially widespread in the 1780s, when they affected large regions of the country. Bread prices have increased significantly: for example, in the center of Russia (Moscow, Smolensk, Kaluga) they increased from 86 kopecks. in 1760 to 2.19 rubles. in 1773 and up to 7 rubles. in 1788, that is, more than 8 times.

Paper money introduced into circulation in 1769 - banknotes- in the first decade of its existence, they accounted for only a few percent of the metal (silver and copper) money supply, and played a positive role, allowing the state to reduce its costs of moving money within the empire. However, due to the lack of money in the treasury, which became a constant phenomenon, from the beginning of the 1780s, an increasing number of banknotes were issued, the volume of which reached 156 million rubles by 1796, and their value depreciated by 1.5 times. In addition, the state borrowed money abroad in the amount of 33 million rubles. and had various unpaid internal obligations (bills, salaries, etc.) in the amount of RUB 15.5 million. That. the total amount of government debts amounted to 205 million rubles, the treasury was empty, and budget expenses significantly exceeded income, which was stated by Paul I upon his accession to the throne. All this gave rise to the historian N.D. Chechulin, in his economic research, to conclude about a “severe economic crisis” in the country (in the second half of the reign of Catherine II) and about the “complete collapse of the financial system of Catherine’s reign.”

In 1768, a network of city schools was created, based on a class-lesson system. Schools began to open actively. Under Catherine, special attention was paid to the development of women's education; in 1764, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Educational Society for Noble Maidens were opened. The Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics laboratory, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. On October 11, 1783, the Russian Academy was founded.

Compulsory smallpox vaccination introduced, and Catherine decided to set a personal example for her subjects: on the night of October 12 (23), 1768, the empress herself was vaccinated against smallpox. Among the first to be vaccinated were also Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich and Grand Duchess Maria Feodorovna. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to acquire the character of state measures that were directly included in the responsibilities of the Imperial Council and the Senate. By decree of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only on the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The “Border and Port Quarantine Charter” was created.

New areas of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and shelters were opened. A number of fundamental works on medical issues have been published.

To prevent their relocation to the central regions of Russia and attachment to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II established the Pale of Settlement in 1791, outside of which Jews had no right to live. The Pale of Settlement was established in the same place where Jews had lived before - on the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy lifted all restrictions on residence. It is noted that the Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity and the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

In 1762-1764, Catherine published two manifestos. The first - “On the permission of all foreigners entering Russia to settle in whichever provinces they wish and the rights granted to them” - called on foreign citizens to move to Russia, the second defined a list of benefits and privileges for immigrants. Soon the first German settlements arose in the Volga region, reserved for settlers. The influx of German colonists was so great that already in 1766 it was necessary to temporarily suspend the reception of new settlers until those who had already arrived were settled. The creation of colonies on the Volga was increasing: in 1765 - 12 colonies, in 1766 - 21, in 1767 - 67. According to the census of colonists in 1769, 6.5 thousand families lived in 105 colonies on the Volga, which amounted to 23.2 thousand people. In the future, the German community will play a significant role in the life of Russia.

During the reign of Catherine, the country included the Northern Black Sea region, the Azov region, Crimea, Novorossia, the lands between the Dniester and the Bug, Belarus, Courland and Lithuania. The total number of new subjects acquired by Russia in this way reached 7 million. As a result, as V. O. Klyuchevsky wrote, in the Russian Empire “the discord of interests intensified” between different peoples. This was expressed, in particular, in the fact that for almost every nationality the government was forced to introduce a special economic, tax and administrative regime. Thus, the German colonists were completely exempt from paying taxes to the state and from other duties; the Pale of Settlement was introduced for Jews; From the Ukrainian and Belarusian population in the territory of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the poll tax was at first not levied at all, and then levied at half the amount. The indigenous population turned out to be the most discriminated against under these conditions, which led to the following incident: some Russian nobles at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. as a reward for their service, they were asked to “register as Germans” so that they could enjoy the corresponding privileges.

On April 21, 1785, two charters were issued: “Certificate on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble nobility” And “Charter of Complaint to Cities”. The Empress called them the crown of her activity, and historians consider them the crown of the “pro-noble policy” of the kings of the 18th century. As N.I. Pavlenko writes, “In the history of Russia, the nobility has never been blessed with such diverse privileges as under Catherine II.”

Both charters finally assigned to the upper classes those rights, obligations and privileges that had already been granted by Catherine’s predecessors during the 18th century, and provided a number of new ones. Thus, the nobility as a class was formed by the decrees of Peter I and then received a number of privileges, including exemption from the poll tax and the right to unlimited disposal of estates; and by decree of Peter III it was finally released from compulsory service to the state.

The charter granted to the nobility contained the following guarantees:

Already existing rights were confirmed
- the nobility were exempted from the quartering of military units and commands, from corporal punishment
- the nobility received ownership of the subsoil of the earth
- the right to have their own estate institutions, the name of the 1st estate has changed: not “nobility”, but “noble nobility”
- it was forbidden to confiscate the estates of nobles for criminal offenses; estates were to be transferred to the legal heirs
- nobles have the exclusive right of ownership of land, but the “Charter” does not say a word about the monopoly right to have serfs
- Ukrainian elders were given equal rights with Russian nobles. a nobleman who did not have an officer rank was deprived of the right to vote
- only nobles whose income from estates exceeded 100 rubles could hold elected positions.

Despite the privileges, in the era of Catherine II, property inequality among the nobles increased greatly: against the backdrop of individual large fortunes, the economic situation of part of the nobility worsened. As the historian D. Blum points out, a number of large nobles owned tens and hundreds of thousands of serfs, which was not the case in previous reigns (when the owner of more than 500 souls was considered rich); at the same time, almost 2/3 of all landowners in 1777 had less than 30 male serfs, and 1/3 of landowners had less than 10 souls; many nobles who wanted to enter the public service did not have the funds to purchase appropriate clothing and shoes. V. O. Klyuchevsky writes that many noble children during her reign, even becoming students at the maritime academy and “receiving a small salary (scholarships), 1 rub. per month, “from barefoot” they could not even attend the academy and were forced, according to the report, not to think about the sciences, but about their own food, to acquire funds for their maintenance on the side.”

During the reign of Catherine II, a number of laws were adopted that worsened the situation of the peasants:

The decree of 1763 entrusted the maintenance of military commands sent to suppress peasant uprisings to the peasants themselves.
According to the decree of 1765, for open disobedience, the landowner could send the peasant not only to exile, but also to hard labor, and the period of hard labor was set by him; The landowners also had the right to return those exiled from hard labor at any time.
A decree of 1767 prohibited peasants from complaining about their master; those who disobeyed were threatened with exile to Nerchinsk (but they could go to court).
In 1783, serfdom was introduced in Little Russia (Left Bank Ukraine and the Russian Black Earth Region).
In 1796, serfdom was introduced in New Russia (Don, North Caucasus).
After the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the serfdom regime was tightened in the territories that were transferred to the Russian Empire (Right Bank Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Poland).

As N.I. Pavlenko writes, under Catherine “serfdom developed in depth and breadth,” which was “an example of a blatant contradiction between the ideas of the Enlightenment and government measures to strengthen the serfdom regime.”

During her reign, Catherine gave away more than 800 thousand peasants to landowners and nobles, thereby setting a kind of record. Most of them were not state peasants, but peasants from lands acquired during the partitions of Poland, as well as palace peasants. But, for example, the number of assigned (possession) peasants from 1762 to 1796. increased from 210 to 312 thousand people, and these were formally free (state) peasants, but converted to the status of serfs or slaves. Possession peasants of the Ural factories took an active part in Peasant War of 1773-1775.

At the same time, the situation of the monastic peasants was alleviated, who were transferred to the jurisdiction of the College of Economy along with the lands. All their duties were replaced by monetary rent, which gave the peasants more independence and developed their economic initiative. As a result, the unrest of the monastery peasants ceased.

The fact that a woman who did not have any formal rights to this was proclaimed empress gave rise to many pretenders to the throne, which overshadowed a significant part of the reign of Catherine II. Yes, just from 1764 to 1773 seven False Peters III appeared in the country(who claimed that they were nothing more than the “resurrected” Peter III) - A. Aslanbekov, I. Evdokimov, G. Kremnev, P. Chernyshov, G. Ryabov, F. Bogomolov, N. Krestov; Emelyan Pugachev became eighth. And in 1774-1775. To this list was added the “case of Princess Tarakanova,” who pretended to be the daughter of Elizaveta Petrovna.

During 1762-1764. 3 conspiracies were uncovered aimed at overthrowing Catherine, and two of them were associated with the name of the former Russian emperor Ivan VI, who at the time of Catherine II’s accession to the throne continued to remain alive in prison in the Shlisselburg fortress. The first of them involved 70 officers. The second took place in 1764, when second lieutenant V. Ya. Mirovich, who was on guard duty in the Shlisselburg fortress, won over part of the garrison to his side in order to free Ivan. The guards, however, in accordance with the instructions given to them, stabbed the prisoner, and Mirovich himself was arrested and executed.

In 1771, a major plague epidemic occurred in Moscow, complicated by popular unrest in Moscow, called the Plague Riot. The rebels destroyed the Chudov Monastery in the Kremlin. The next day, the crowd took the Donskoy Monastery by storm, killed Archbishop Ambrose, who was hiding there, and began to destroy quarantine outposts and houses of the nobility. Troops under the command of G. G. Orlov were sent to suppress the uprising. After three days of fighting, the riot was suppressed.

In 1773-1775 there was a peasant uprising led by Emelyan Pugachev. It covered the lands of the Yaitsk army, the Orenburg province, the Urals, the Kama region, Bashkiria, part of Western Siberia, the Middle and Lower Volga region. During the uprising, the Cossacks were joined by Bashkirs, Tatars, Kazakhs, Ural factory workers and numerous serfs from all the provinces where hostilities took place. After the suppression of the uprising, some liberal reforms were curtailed and conservatism intensified.

In 1772 took place First section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Austria received all of Galicia with its districts, Prussia - Western Prussia (Pomerania), Russia - the eastern part of Belarus to Minsk (Vitebsk and Mogilev provinces) and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia. The Polish Sejm was forced to agree to the division and give up claims to the lost territories: Poland lost 380,000 km² with a population of 4 million people.

Polish nobles and industrialists contributed to the adoption of the Constitution of 1791; The conservative part of the population of the Targowica Confederation turned to Russia for help.

In 1793 there took place Second section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, approved at the Grodno Seim. Prussia received Gdansk, Torun, Poznan (part of the lands along the Warta and Vistula rivers), Russia - Central Belarus with Minsk and Novorossiya (part of the territory of modern Ukraine).

In March 1794, an uprising began under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko, the goals of which were to restore territorial integrity, sovereignty and the Constitution of May 3, but in the spring of that year it was suppressed by the Russian army under the command of A.V. Suvorov. During the Kościuszko uprising, the rebel Poles who seized the Russian embassy in Warsaw discovered documents that had a great public resonance, according to which King Stanisław Poniatowski and a number of members of the Grodno Sejm, at the time of the approval of the 2nd partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, received money from the Russian government - in in particular, Poniatowski received several thousand ducats.

In 1795 took place Third section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Austria received Southern Poland with Luban and Krakow, Prussia - Central Poland with Warsaw, Russia - Lithuania, Courland, Volhynia and Western Belarus.

October 13, 1795 - a conference of the three powers on the fall of the Polish state, it lost statehood and sovereignty.

An important area of ​​Catherine II’s foreign policy also included the territories of Crimea, the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus, which were under Turkish rule.

When the uprising of the Bar Confederation broke out, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia (Russian-Turkish War 1768-1774), using as a pretext the fact that one of the Russian troops, pursuing the Poles, entered the territory of the Ottoman Empire. Russian troops defeated the Confederates and began to win victories one after another in the south. Having achieved success in a number of land and sea battles (the Battle of Kozludzhi, the battle of Ryabaya Mogila, the Battle of Kagul, the Battle of Larga, the Battle of Chesme, etc.), Russia forced Turkey to sign the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty, as a result of which the Crimean Khanate formally gained independence, but de facto became dependent on Russia. Turkey paid Russia military indemnities in the order of 4.5 million rubles, and also ceded the northern coast of the Black Sea along with two important ports.

After the end of the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, Russia's policy towards the Crimean Khanate was aimed at establishing a pro-Russian ruler in it and joining Russia. Under pressure from Russian diplomacy, Shahin Giray was elected khan. The previous khan, Turkey's protege Devlet IV Giray, tried to resist at the beginning of 1777, but it was suppressed by A.V. Suvorov, Devlet IV fled to Turkey. At the same time, the landing of Turkish troops in Crimea was prevented and thus an attempt to start a new war was prevented, after which Turkey recognized Shahin Giray as khan. In 1782, an uprising broke out against him, which was suppressed by Russian troops introduced into the peninsula, and in 1783, with the manifesto of Catherine II, the Crimean Khanate was annexed to Russia.

After the victory, the Empress, together with the Austrian Emperor Joseph II, made a triumphal tour of the Crimea.

The next war with Turkey occurred in 1787-1792 and was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain the lands that had gone to Russia during the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, including Crimea. Here, too, the Russians won a number of important victories, both land - the Battle of Kinburn, the Battle of Rymnik, the capture of Ochakov, the capture of Izmail, the battle of Focsani, the Turkish campaigns against Bendery and Akkerman were repulsed, etc., and sea - the battle of Fidonisi (1788), The Battle of Kerch (1790), the Battle of Cape Tendra (1790) and the Battle of Kaliakria (1791). As a result, the Ottoman Empire in 1791 was forced to sign the Treaty of Yassy, ​​which assigned Crimea and Ochakov to Russia, and also pushed the border between the two empires to the Dniester.

The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories of Rumyantsev, Orlov-Chesmensky, Suvorov, Potemkin, Ushakov, and the establishment of Russia in the Black Sea. As a result, the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, and the Kuban region went to Russia, its political positions in the Caucasus and Balkans strengthened, and Russia’s authority on the world stage was strengthened.

According to many historians, these conquests are the main achievement of the reign of Catherine II. At the same time, a number of historians (K. Valishevsky, V. O. Klyuchevsky, etc.) and contemporaries (Frederick II, French ministers, etc.) explained the “amazing” victories of Russia over Turkey not so much by the strength of the Russian army and navy, which were still quite weak and poorly organized, largely a consequence of the extreme decomposition of the Turkish army and state during this period.

Catherine II's height: 157 centimeters.

Personal life of Catherine II:

Unlike her predecessor, Catherine did not carry out extensive palace construction for her own needs. To move around the country comfortably, she set up a network of small travel palaces along the road from St. Petersburg to Moscow (from Chesmensky to Petrovsky) and only at the end of her life began building a new country residence in Pella (not preserved). In addition, she was concerned about the lack of a spacious and modern residence in Moscow and its environs. Although she did not visit the old capital often, Catherine for a number of years cherished plans for the reconstruction of the Moscow Kremlin, as well as the construction of suburban palaces in Lefortovo, Kolomenskoye and Tsaritsyn. For various reasons, none of these projects were completed.

Ekaterina was a brunette of average height. She combined high intelligence, education, statesmanship and a commitment to “free love.” Catherine is known for her connections with numerous lovers, the number of which (according to the list of the authoritative Catherine scholar P.I. Bartenev) reaches 23. The most famous of them were Sergei Saltykov, G.G. Orlov, horse guard lieutenant Vasilchikov, hussar Zorich, Lanskoy, the last favorite there was cornet Platon Zubov, who became a general. According to some sources, Catherine was secretly married to Potemkin (1775, see Wedding of Catherine II and Potemkin). After 1762, she planned a marriage with Orlov, but on the advice of those close to her, she abandoned this idea.

Catherine's love affairs were marked by a series of scandals. So, Grigory Orlov, being her favorite, at the same time (according to the testimony of M. M. Shcherbatov) cohabited with all her ladies-in-waiting and even with his 13-year-old cousin. The favorite of Empress Lanskaya used an aphrodisiac to increase “male strength” (contarid) in ever-increasing doses, which, apparently, according to the conclusion of the court physician Weikart, was the cause of his unexpected death at a young age. Her last favorite, Platon Zubov, was a little over 20 years old, while Catherine’s age at that time had already exceeded 60. Historians mention many other scandalous details (“a bribe” of 100 thousand rubles paid to Potemkin by the empress’s future favorites, many of who were previously his adjutants, testing their “male strength” by her ladies-in-waiting, etc.).

The bewilderment of contemporaries, including foreign diplomats, the Austrian Emperor Joseph II, etc., was caused by the enthusiastic reviews and characteristics that Catherine gave to her young favorites, most of whom were devoid of any outstanding talents. As N.I. Pavlenko writes, “neither before Catherine nor after her did debauchery reach such a wide scale and manifest itself in such an openly defiant form.”

It is worth noting that in Europe, Catherine’s “debauchery” was not such a rare occurrence against the backdrop of the general debauchery of morals in the 18th century. Most kings (with the possible exception of Frederick the Great, Louis XVI and Charles XII) had numerous mistresses. However, this does not apply to reigning queens and empresses. Thus, the Austrian Empress Maria Theresa wrote about the “disgust and horror” that such persons as Catherine II instill in her, and this attitude towards the latter was shared by her daughter Marie Antoinette. As K. Walishevsky wrote in this regard, comparing Catherine II with Louis XV, “the difference between the sexes until the end of time, we think, will give a deeply unequal character to the same actions, depending on whether they were committed by a man or a woman... besides, the mistresses of Louis XV never influenced the fate of France.”

There are numerous examples of the exceptional influence (both negative and positive) that Catherine’s favorites (Orlov, Potemkin, Platon Zubov, etc.) had on the fate of the country, starting from June 28, 1762 until the death of the Empress, as well as on its domestic and foreign policies and even military actions. As N.I. Pavlenko writes, to please the favorite Grigory Potemkin, who was jealous of the glory of Field Marshal Rumyantsev, this outstanding commander and hero of the Russian-Turkish wars was removed by Catherine from command of the army and was forced to retire to his estate. Another, very mediocre commander, Musin-Pushkin, on the contrary, continued to lead the army, despite his mistakes in military campaigns (for which the empress herself called him “a complete idiot”) - thanks to the fact that he was the “favorite of June 28”, one of those who helped Catherine seize the throne.

In addition, the institution of favoritism had a negative effect on the morals of the higher nobility, who sought benefits through flattery to the new favorite, tried to make “their own man” become lovers of the empress, etc. Contemporary M. M. Shcherbatov wrote that favoritism and debauchery of Catherine II contributed to the decline of the morals of the nobility of that era, and historians agree with this.

Catherine had two sons: (1754) and Alexei Bobrinsky (1762 - son of Grigory Orlov), as well as a daughter, Anna Petrovna (1757-1759, possibly from the future king of Poland Stanislav Poniatovsky), who died in infancy. Less likely is Catherine's motherhood in relation to Potemkin's pupil named Elizaveta, who was born when the empress was over 45 years old.

The list of Catherine II's men includes men who figured in the intimate life of Empress Catherine the Great (1729-1796), including her spouses, official favorites and lovers. Catherine II has up to 21 lovers, but how can we object to the empress, then of course they had their own methods.

1. Catherine’s husband was Peter Fedorovich (Emperor Peter III) (1728-1762). They had a wedding in 1745, August 21 (September 1). The end of the relationship was June 28 (July 9), 1762 - death of Peter III. His children, according to the Romanov tree, Pavel Petrovich (1754) (according to one version, his father is Sergei Saltykov) and officially - Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna (1757-1759, most likely the daughter of Stanislav Poniatovsky). He suffered from a form of impotence, and in the first years he did not have marital relations with her. Then this problem was solved with the help of a surgical operation, and in order to perform it, Peter got Saltykov drunk.

2. While she was engaged, she also had an affair, Saltykov, Sergei Vasilyevich (1726-1765). In 1752 he was at the small court of the Grand Dukes Catherine and Peter. The beginning of the novel in 1752. The end of the relationship was the birth of a child, Pavel, in October 1754. After which Saltykov was expelled from St. Petersburg and sent as envoy to Sweden.

3. Catherine's lover was Stanisław August Poniatowski (1732-1798) who fell in love in 1756. And in 1758, after the fall of Chancellor Bestuzhev, Williams and Poniatowski were forced to leave St. Petersburg. After the affair, her daughter Anna Petrovna (1757-1759) was born; Grand Duke Pyotr Fedorovich himself thought so, who, judging by Catherine’s Notes, said: “God knows how my wife gets pregnant; I don’t know for sure whether this child is mine and whether I should recognize him as mine.” In the future, Catherine will make him King of Poland, and then annex Poland and annex it to Russia.

4. Likewise, Catherine 2 was not upset and continued to fall in love. Her next secret lover was Orlov, Grigory Grigorievich (1734-1783). The beginning of the novel In the spring of 1759, Count Schwerin, the aide-de-camp of Frederick II, who was captured in the Battle of Zorndorf, arrived in St. Petersburg, to whom Orlov was assigned as a guard. Orlov gained fame by wresting his mistress from Pyotr Shuvalov. The end of the relationship in 1772, after the death of her husband, even she wanted to marry him and then she was dissuaded. Orlov had many mistresses. They also had a son, Bobrinsky, Alexey Grigorievich was born on April 22, 1762, a few months after the death of Elizaveta Petrovna. They report that on the day she went into labor, her faithful servant Shkurin set fire to his house, and Peter rushed off to watch the fire . Orlov and his passionate brothers contributed to the overthrow of Peter and the accession of Catherine to the throne. Having lost favor, he married his cousin Ekaterina Zinovieva, and after her death he went crazy.

5. Vasilchikov, Alexander Semyonovich (1746-1803/1813) Official favorite. Acquaintance in 1772, September. He often stood guard in Tsarskoe Selo and received a golden snuffbox. Took Orlov's room. 1774, March 20, in connection with the rise of Potemkin, he was sent to Moscow. Catherine considered him boring (14 years difference). After retirement, he settled in Moscow with his brother and did not marry.

6. Potemkin, Grigory Alexandrovich (1739-1791) Official favorite, husband since 1775. In April 1776 he went on vacation. Catherine gave birth to Potemkin's daughter, Elizaveta Grigorievna Tyomkina. Despite the gap in her personal life, thanks to her abilities, she maintained Catherine's friendship and respect and for many years remained the second person in the state. He was not married, his personal life consisted of “enlightening” his young nieces, including Ekaterina Engelgart.

7. Zavadovsky, Pyotr Vasilievich (1739-1812) official favorite.
The beginning of the relationship in 1776. November, presented to the empress as an author, interested Catherine. In 1777, June did not suit Potemkin and was removed. Also in May 1777, Catherine met Zorich. He was jealous of Catherine 2, which did the damage. 1777 recalled by the empress back to the capital, 1780 engaged in administrative affairs, married Vera Nikolaevna Apraksina.

8. Zorich, Semyon Gavrilovich (1743/1745-1799). In 1777, June became Catherine's personal guard. 1778 June caused inconvenience, expelled from St. Petersburg (14 years younger than the Empress) Was dismissed and sent into retirement with little remuneration. Founded the Shklov School. Enmeshed in debt and suspected of counterfeiting.

9. Rimsky-Korsakov, Ivan Nikolaevich (1754-1831) Official favorite. 1778, June. Noticed by Potemkin, who was looking to replace Zorich, and distinguished by him due to his beauty, as well as ignorance and lack of serious abilities that could make him a political rival. Potemkin introduced him to the empress among three officers. On June 1, he was appointed aide-de-camp to the Empress. 1779, October 10. Removed from the court after the Empress found him in the arms of Countess Praskovya Bruce, sister of Field Marshal Rumyantsev. This intrigue of Potemkin had as its goal the removal not of Korsakov, but of Bruce herself. 25 years younger than the empress; Catherine was attracted by his announced “innocence.” He was very handsome and had an excellent voice (for his sake, Catherine invited world-famous musicians to Russia). After the loss of favor, he first stayed in St. Petersburg and talked in living rooms about his connection with the empress, which hurt her pride. In addition, he left Bruce and began an affair with Countess Ekaterina Stroganova (he was 10 years younger than her). This turned out to be too much, and Catherine sent him to Moscow. Stroganova’s husband eventually gave her a divorce. Korsakov lived with her until the end of her life, they had a son and two daughters.

10 Stakhiev (Strakhov) Beginning of relations 1778; 1779, June. End of relationship 1779, October. According to the description of contemporaries, “a jester of the lowest order.” Strakhov was a protégé of Count N.I. Panin Strakhov may be Ivan Varfolomeevich Strakhov (1750-1793), in which case he was not the empress’s lover, but a man whom Panin considered insane, and who, when Catherine once told him that he could ask her for some favor, threw himself on his knees and asked for her hand, after which she began to avoid him.

11 Stoyanov (Stanov) Beginning of relations 1778. The end of relations 1778. Potemkin's protégé.

12 Rantsov (Rontsov), Ivan Romanovich (1755-1791) Beginning of the relationship 1779. Mentioned among those who participated in the “competition”; it is not entirely clear whether he managed to visit the empress’s alcove. End of relationship 1780. One of illegitimate sons Count R.I. Vorontsov, half-brother of Dashkova. A year later he led a London mob in riots organized by Lord George Gordon.

13 Levashov, Vasily Ivanovich (1740(?) - 1804). Beginning of relations 1779, October. End of relationship 1779, October. Major of the Semenovsky regiment, a young man protected by Countess Bruce. He was distinguished by his wit and cheerfulness. Uncle of one of the subsequent favorites - Ermolov. He was not married, but had 6 “pupils” from a student of the theater school Akulina Semyonova, who were granted the dignity of nobility and his surname.

14 Vysotsky, Nikolai Petrovich (1751-1827). Beginning of relationship 1780, March. Potemkin's nephew. End of relationship 1780, March.

15 Lanskoy, Alexander Dmitrievich (1758-1784) Official favorite. Beginning of relationship 1780 April He was introduced to Catherine by Chief of Police P.I. Tolstoy, she paid attention to him, but he did not become a favorite. Levashev turned to Potemkin for help, he made him his adjutant and supervised his court education for about six months, after which in the spring of 1780 he recommended him to the empress as a warm friend. The end of the relationship was 1784, July 25. He died after a five-day illness with toad and fever. 29 years younger than the 54-year-old at the time the empress began her relationship. The only one of the favorites who did not interfere in politics and refused influence, ranks, and orders. He shared Catherine’s interest in science and, under her guidance, studied French and became acquainted with philosophy. He enjoyed universal sympathy. He sincerely adored the Empress and tried his best to maintain peace with Potemkin. If Catherine began to flirt with someone else, Lanskoy “wasn’t jealous, didn’t cheat on her, wasn’t insolent, but so touchingly […] lamented her disfavor and suffered so sincerely that he won her love again.”

16. Mordvinov. Beginning of relationship 1781 May. Relative of Lermontov. Probably Mordvinov, Nikolai Semyonovich (1754-1845). The admiral's son, the same age as Grand Duke Paul, was brought up with him. The episode did not affect his biography and is usually not mentioned. He became a famous naval commander. Relative of Lermontov

17 Ermolov, Alexander Petrovich (1754-1834) February 1785, a holiday was specially organized to introduce the Empress to him. 1786, June 28. He decided to act against Potemkin (the Crimean Khan Sahib-Girey was supposed to receive large sums from Potemkin, but they were detained, and the khan turned to Ermolov for help), in addition, the empress also lost interest in him. He was expelled from St. Petersburg - he was “allowed to go abroad for three years.” In 1767, traveling along the Volga, Catherine stopped at his father’s estate and took the 13-year-old boy to St. Petersburg. Potemkin took him into his retinue, and almost 20 years later proposed him as a favorite. He was tall and slender, blond, gloomy, taciturn, honest and too simple. With letters of recommendation from the Chancellor, Count Bezborodko, he left for Germany and Italy. Everywhere he behaved very modestly. After retirement, he settled in Moscow and married Elizaveta Mikhailovna Golitsyna, with whom he had children. Nephew of the previous favorite - Vasily Levashov. Then he left for Austria, where he bought the rich and profitable Frosdorf estate near Vienna, where he died at the age of 82.

18. Dmitriev-Mamonov, Alexander Matveevich (1758-1803) In 1786, June was presented to the empress after the departure of Yermolov. 1789 fell in love with Princess Daria Fedorovna Shcherbatova, Catherine’s understanding was complete. asked for forgiveness, forgiven. After the wedding, he was forced to leave St. Petersburg. Future married people in Moscow. He repeatedly asked to return to St. Petersburg, but was refused. His wife gave birth to 4 children, and eventually they separated.

19.Miloradovich. The relationship began in 1789. He was among the candidates proposed after Dmitriev’s resignation. Their number also included retired second major of the Preobrazhensky regiment Kazarinov, Baron Mengden - all young handsome men, behind each of whom stood influential courtiers (Potemkin, Bezborodko, Naryshkin, Vorontsov and Zavadovsky). End of relationship 1789.

20. Miklashevsky. The beginning of the relationship was 1787. The end was 1787. Miklashevsky was a candidate, but did not become a favorite. According to evidence, during Catherine II’s trip to Crimea in 1787, a certain Miklashevsky was among the candidates for favorites. Perhaps it was Miklashevsky, Mikhail Pavlovich (1756-1847), who was part of Potemkin’s retinue as an adjutant (the first step to favor), but it is unclear from what year. In 1798, Mikhail Miklashevsky was appointed governor of Little Russia, but was soon dismissed. In biography, the episode with Catherine is usually not mentioned.

21. Zubov, Platon Alexandrovich (1767-1822) Official favorite. Beginning of relationship 1789, July. A protege of Field Marshal Prince N.I. Saltykov, the chief educator of Catherine’s grandchildren. End of relationship 1796, November 6. Catherine's last favorite. The relationship ended with her death. The 22-year-old at the time of the start of a relationship with the 60-year-old empress. The first official favorite since Potemkin, who was not his adjutant. N.I. Saltykov and A.N. Naryshkina stood behind him, and Perekusikhina also worked for him. He enjoyed great influence and practically managed to oust Potemkin, who threatened to “come and pull out a tooth.” Later he participated in the assassination of Emperor Paul. Shortly before his death, he married a young, humble and poor Polish beauty and was terribly jealous of her.

Memory of Catherine 2. Monuments dedicated to her.