Alexandria Scientific School. Alexandria School Alexandria School
Formerly the center of world communications at that time. This was at a time when Greek culture spread throughout the state founded by Alexander the Great and disintegrated after his death. The period of time in which Greek poetry and science were developed here is called, after some special features that distinguish it, the Alexandrian Age. It can be divided into two main periods: the first (Alexandrian Age in a narrower sense) covers the reign of the Ptolemies from 323-30 BC. e. (Hellenistic Egypt); the second continues from the end of the Ptolemaic dynasty to the conquest of Alexandria by the Arabs - 30 BC. e. - 640 AD e. The first Greek ruler who sought to create for Greek science and Greek education a broad foundation and a new refuge was Ptolemy Soter; he gathered many scientists there and laid the foundations of the Library of Alexandria and the Museum of Alexandria. These studies were moved forward significantly more by his successor, Ptolemy Philadelphus, who created the famous Library of Alexandria on a large scale. The Greeks, Egyptians, Jews, and later the Romans belonged to the Alexandrian school.
Grammar and literature
Grammarians had the greatest importance, poets - less. The first were not only teachers and language researchers, but also philologists and writers who explained not only words, but also content - in a word, encyclopedists. These are: Zenodotus of Ephesus, who formed the first grammar school in Alexandria, Eratosthenes of Cyrene, Aristophanes of Byzantium, Aristarchus of Samothrace, Kratus of Malos, who operated in another capital of learning - in Pergamon, Dionysius of Thracia, Didymus Chalkenter, Apollonius Discolus and many others. Their main merit is that they collected, researched, evaluated and preserved the cultural and literary monuments available to them for future generations. The most famous of the poets, who mostly wrote in Alexandria itself, were: Apollonius of Rhodes, Aratus, Nicander, Euphorion, Callimachus, Theocritus, Philetus of Kos, Phanocles, Timon of Phliasia and seven - called the Alexandrian seven-star - tragedians, including Alexander of Aetolia and Lycophron.
The Alexandrian age, with its encyclopedic education, differed significantly in spirit and character from ancient Greek life. With the attention which was devoted to the study of language, the correctness, purity and grace of this latter naturally became the objects of chief effort, and indeed many Alexandrians distinguished themselves in this respect. But most of these works lacked the spirit that animated earlier Greek poetry, just as it lacked such important communication with a real national public; but the technique was highly developed and subtle, the composition was skillfully calculated, the form was exquisitely elegant; criticism and abundant learning, diligence and skill were supposed to replace what genius had previously given. This latter was manifested only in a few, who therefore seem especially great for their time; others produced what could be produced by criticism and study; their often skillfully thought out and carefully crafted works are too sober, devoid of spirit and life. Feeling the lack of originality, but recognizing its merit and striving for it, they have quietly reached the limit where all poetry disappears. Their criticism has degenerated into pettiness, their art into artificiality. They strived for the unusual, for the new, and tried to achieve this through learning. Therefore, most of the Alexandrians were both poets and grammarians, in most cases soulless and cold rhyme-makers.
Philosophy
The Alexandrian school is also spoken of in relation to the philosophers who belonged to the Alexandrian age and lived in Alexandria. What is characteristic of Alexandrian philosophy is that in Alexandria Eastern and Western philosophies came into contact and that the desire for reconciliation of contradictory philosophical systems generally prevailed here; As a result, the Alexandrian philosophers who followed this direction towards collecting and connecting were often called syncretists. But in fact, this name does not apply to everyone, since both dogmatists and, in contrast to them, skeptics appeared here. The Alexandrian Neoplatonists became most famous. Combining Eastern theosophy with Greek dialectics, they embodied the struggle of ancient civilization with Christianity, so their philosophy had some influence on the way Christianity was understood in Egypt. From the fusion of Eastern views with Christian ones, some currents of Gnosticism were formed; some of the most important Gnostic systems were developed in Alexandria. The most prominent teachers of the Christian catechetical school that arose and flourished there were no less imbued with the spirit of this philosophy; Therefore, the Alexandrian church was worried about strong religious disputes, since the most diverse elements were found in Alexandria. This continued until he came out of their midst in the fight against
Jewish philosophy in its modern, classical form originated in Alexandria around the 2nd century AD. as a result of close ties with their neighbors - the Greeks.
Its first important evidence is the “Book of Wisdom,” dedicated to the exposure of pagan cults and morals and the praise of wisdom. This book is imbued with sublime monotheism - monotheism in the highest sense of the word! - and an unshakable belief in a “personal” God, which corresponds to the spirit of Judaism. However, the influence of Greek philosophy on the author is beyond doubt. The “wisdom” of this book is not at all the same as the “wisdom” of the Book of Proverbs; here wisdom becomes an objective principle and plays the role of a mediator between God and the world, “penetrating everything and permeating everything.” Wisdom, as it were, separates from God and from man, begins to “walk on its own,” which clearly goes beyond the scope of Jewish ideas in their pure, original form: it is understood in the spirit of Stoic philosophy as the world spirit or all-encompassing mind (Logos).
The Greek influence is even more noticeable in the assertion that the world was created not ex nihilo (out of nothing), but from some formless matter. Directly opposite to the teaching of the Talmud, but akin to Platonic philosophy, is the idea that the soul enters the body having already passed through a previous existence, and therefore languishes in the body, like a prisoner in captivity.
In general, it should be noted that during the time of Plato and his students (fifth century BC), the science of the origin of the world and its foundations turned from a field that was pursued for the sake of pure and disinterested curiosity into a commercial science - Greek philosophers began to earn money just then their ability to reason and solve world issues. Therefore, the same Plato has many different ideas about the same things, each of which is now considered a classic, but they do not really merge with each other, frankly speaking: they approached different explanations like removable, interchangeable parts. Then, when the scholastics got down to business - purely commercial philosophers, capable of deducing any thought from any premise and premise - this trend took on a completely funny character, but they disagreed somewhat with Jewish philosophy, since unprincipledness did not get along well with that strict system of concepts and frameworks, which the Torah gives to the mind. But here we have gotten ahead of ourselves a little - we will stick to the line of events that made up the history of the Jewish philosophical thought in its collisions and intersections with the so-called “main line of idealistic philosophy in ancient times,” which Plato represents in full height.
The largest and most famous representative of the Alexandrian school of Jewish philosophy was Philo (c. 25 BC - 40 AD). He was the first to set the task of reconciling the views of the Torah with Greek philosophy. Much of Philo's extensive writings consist of commentaries, a kind of homemade midrash on the Holy Scriptures. He naively tries to discover in the Torah all the ideas that he borrowed from the Greeks, in particular from the same old man Plato. For this purpose, Philo resorts to the method of allegorical, allegorical interpretation. For Philo, everything in the Torah, from names and dates to historical narrative and religious and moral precepts, is an allegory. This does not mean that Philo denies the historical nature of the events described in the Torah or the binding nature of its commandments. He only asserts that the entire content of the Torah is intended not so much to guide a person’s daily behavior as to instill in him sublime philosophical ideals, which for Philo means those ideas that attracted him to modern Greek philosophy.
For example, the Exodus, in his opinion, is described in the Torah not so that Israel would remember in each generation as acts of miraculous salvation, unprecedented in world history, that happened personally to each Jew, which the Eternal One performed for him, but as a sermon about salvation from spiritual unrest. And so on - that is, Philo advised freely reflecting on the Torah, so that it - and this, in his opinion, is its highest meaning - evokes lofty thoughts and beautiful associations. The commandment about Shabbat should remind a person not of Creation and the Exodus, but of the importance of honoring the mystical number “seven”. It is clear that whoever thinks so will hardly actually keep the Sabbath, but he will be able to say a lot of interesting and enticing things about its cosmic importance: but who will he tell all this if they forget and do not keep the Sabbath? That is, the word is separated from the deed and from what it generally calls - and turns into a kind of “self-propelled” unit. This is an important - but equally harmful to the Jewish way of life - innovation of Philo of Alexandria. However, not the only thing that is interesting:
Philo’s most important contribution to the history of philosophical and religious thought (which has nothing in common with Judaism) is his concept of logos (that very single word “walking around the world by itself.” Developing the idea of the “Book of Wisdom,” Philo came to a new understanding of the Greek logos. He interpreted logos as a special personality, a “second god” or “son of god,” which is an instrument of divine creation and revelation and an instrument of God’s immanent activity in the universe. Logos, in Philo’s understanding, is undoubtedly lower than God himself. Logos-Word, which, according to Christian theological dogma, “created flesh.” Rather, Philo simply confused one of the names-designations of the Most High in the Aramaic translation of the Torah (“Word”) and its essence - mixed up and “split” the name and concept, for Jews are completely united - and he recorded this confusion, which is why there were so many misunderstandings in the philosophy of all eras: God Himself in Philo’s system is not only incorporeal, but also devoid of any attributes and properties. This is pure being, about which nothing can be asserted. God is an abstract, static, eternally unchanging and equal spiritual principle. In this way, Philo tried to reconcile the Platonic tendency, which removes God as far as possible from the visible world, with the view of the Torah, which affirms the personal connection of God with the world.
The concept of logos developed by Philo, as stated above, is deeply alien to Judaism. Of course! The Biblical God is a living God, and not the impersonal principle of Greek metaphysics. To carry out His will He uses an intermediary, but of course. He himself is by no means inactive. The idea of logos as a “second god” violates the absolute monotheism of the Jewish tradition. Philo’s allegorical method, which reduces the Torah to the position of a textbook on Greek metaphysics, is also unacceptable for Judaism. If the teachers of the Talmud sometimes resorted to allegory in their interpretation of the Torah, they never lost sight of what was in the first place. The Torah is a revelation of the Will of the Creator, not a guide to exalted contemplation of the Divine. In addition, with such an allegorical interpretation, the Torah in its narrative part is deprived of the national-historical significance that it has for the Jewish people and their destiny. All this explains why Philo did not have a significant influence on the development of Jewish thought. His works, however, were carefully studied by the church fathers, who found in them suitable material for that synthesis of Judaism with the Greek worldview, which came to be called Christian theology.
References
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Alexandria was founded by Alexander the Great in the Nile Delta, on the site of a fishing village. Alexandria subsequently became not only the largest trade, craft, political, but also cultural and scientific center East. The pride of Alexandria was the famous library, founded in the middle of the 3rd century. BC; it consisted of more than 700 thousand papyrus scrolls, which contained all famous works ancient era. The Library of Alexandria was part of the Museum (temple of the muses), which housed an astronomical observatory, zoological and botanical gardens, and premises for the stay and work of scientists who came here from different countries.
The origins of the Alexandrian mathematical school were the great ancient mathematician, teacher and systematizer of mathematical sciences, Euclid. We know very little about Euclid's personality. He lived in the last quarter of the 4th - first quarter of the 3rd century. BC
He studied in Athens, then moved to Alexandria. In his main work, Elements, consisting of 13 books, Euclid outlined all the achievements of ancient Greek mathematics in a systematic axiomatic form. These included plane geometry, Eudoxus' theory of relations, the theory of integers and rational numbers, properties of quadratic irrationalities, fundamentals of stereometry, and Eudoxus' method of elimination. Euclid proved theorems concerning the area of a circle and the volume of a ball, etc. He examined the properties of five regular polyhedra, in which Plato saw ideal geometric images expressing the basic structural relationships of the Cosmos. The presentation of mathematical knowledge was deductive in nature, theories were derived from little! number of axioms.
Eratosthenes stood out for his universal scholarship, whose works were devoted not only to mathematics, but also to astronomy, geography, history, philosophy and philology. His works on determining the size of the globe and geography are especially famous. In mathematics, Eratosthenes is famous for his studies of integer proportions, the discovery of the “Eratosthenes lattice a” (methods of isolating prime numbers from any finite number of odd numbers, starting with three).
Nycomedes, known for the discovery of the algebraic conchoid curve (in polar coordinates, this curve has the form p = A + B cosa), worked at the Alexandrian school, which he used to solve problems of doubling the cube and trisection of an angle.
An outstanding mathematician of antiquity was Apollonius of Perga. In his main work, “Conic Sections,” he substantiated the theory of conic sections in such a comprehensive form that none of the subsequent mathematicians (up to the modern era) could add anything to it. Apollonius of Perga directly approached the foundations of analytical and even projective geometry. He developed a complete theory of second-order curves, including the ellipse. The scientist proposed a method for describing uneven periodic movements as a result of the addition of simpler uniform circular movements. This became the most important prerequisite for the creation of the geocentric system of C. Ptolemy.
Started his career at the Alexandria School creative path and Archimedes (6l. 287-212 pp. BC). It was here that he developed as a mathematician. Returning to Syracuse, Archimedes continued to maintain close ties with the Alexandrian mathematicians. Archimedes made important contributions to mathematics, mechanics and practical mechanics, as well as physics and astronomy. In mathematics, he created methods for calculating the areas and volumes of bodies, and was close to the discovery of integral calculus. He substantiated the geometric solution of the cubic equation and discovered a curve that was called the “Archimedes spiral.”
He proved that the value of the number I is between, and also established that the volume of a sphere, hemisphere and cylinder of the same diameter with a height equal to the diameter are in the ratio 1: 2: 3. He determined the quadrature of a parabola and an ellipse. When measuring the circumference, I calculated the errors for the first time.
In his studies in mechanics, Archimedes developed the theory of simple machines. He introduced the concept of the center of gravity, theoretically proved the law of a simple lever, and created the foundations of statics and hydrostatics. In hydrostatics he discovered the law that bears his name and theoretically proved it. In astronomy, he determined the upper limit of the visible diameter of the Sun to be 33", which is close to the true value (31"59").
In the field of practical mechanics, he invented the Archimedes screw for supplying water, the sphere - a device for reproducing celestial phenomena, and many different vantage and combat machines. Archimedes is the founder of theoretical statics and hydrostatics.
The development of mechanics in the Hellenistic era is associated primarily with the name of Heron of Alexandria, also known as Heron the Mechanic. No exact information has been preserved about the period of life and activity of this scientist (c. I-II centuries BC).
Heron's main work, Mechanics, was preserved only in an Arabic translation by the Syrian Kostya Ibn Luka, who lived at the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th century. In "mechanics" the transmission of motion using interlocking circles, the addition of movements according to the parallelogram rule, the distribution of load between supports, and the center of gravity are determined. As Heron points out, he outlined the contents of Archimedes’ “Book of Supports,” which, unfortunately, has not reached us. A description of simple machines is given: lever, rotator, wedge, screw and block; connection of the lever, block, rotor and screw. This book answers 17 questions regarding the practical applications of simple machines, and also determines the centers of gravity of various figures. Various designs of lifting devices and presses based on combinations of simple machines are also described.
Heron also owns three treatises on applied mechanics: “Pneumatics” - on mechanisms driven by compressed air or steam, “On Automata” - on the design of automatic instruments, and “Bilopoika” - on the design of bows, catapults and other types of weapons.
Heron wrote several works on mathematics, in particular, he proposed an expression for determining the area of a triangle in terms of its sides a, b and c:
Where. This relationship is called Heron's formula.
The Roman architect, mechanic, and encyclopedist Marcus Pollio Vitruvius was also a representative of the Alexandrian school. The life of Vitruvius dates back to the second half of the 1st century. BC Received home education. Vitruvius was a practical builder. His treatise "On Architecture" consists of 10 books. The main content of 9 books concerns architecture. The tenth book of the treatise is entirely devoted to mechanics and contains mainly a description of various mechanisms for lifting loads, as well as practical rules and construction recipes. The general spirit of Vitruvius' system is encyclopedic. Vitruvius did not create anything new, and according to his main plan, it is unlikely that he wanted to do this. He collected and presented in an easy, accessible form the amount of architectural and technical knowledge that the Greeks and Romans created over the centuries. This is a very observant and attentive observer. He probably studied everything that was available in the field of architecture at that time - at least he refers to a large number of authors and works about which we know nothing. In turn, Vitruvius demands complete encyclopedia from a specialist architect. This is knowledge of writing, drawing, mathematics, optics, geometry, history, philosophy (physics and ethics), music, medicine, law, astronomy. Vitruvius tried to prove the necessity of this knowledge. All this knowledge, of course, cannot be acquired at once, which is why you cannot become an architect right away. However, persistent study from a young age may well provide encyclopedic knowledge. The architect does not have to be as competent in all these fields as the corresponding specialist, but he cannot be ignorant of these sciences and arts. It should be noted that from the Renaissance until the end of the 18th century. Vitruvius's influence on European architecture was enormous.
In the first 2 centuries of the earthly existence of the Church, one can hardly speak of sufficiently clearly formed theological trends. The emergence of the Alexandrian and Antiochian schools changes the situation.
The School of Alexandria can be seen primarily as an educational institution and to a lesser extent as a theological school. Both of these aspects of the activity of this school are determined by the specifics of the historical development of Christianity in Alexandria - the leading cultural center of the Roman Empire, where the most intensive process of fusion and mixing of various cultural traditions and worldviews, characteristic of the Hellenistic era and late antiquity, took place. The presence here of a powerful Jewish diaspora (representing the so-called Hellenized Judaism), strong and ramified philosophical schools (among which we can highlight the school of emerging Neoplatonism) and a significant number of scientists who came to work in Museion, placed the Alexandrian Church in special conditions, especially that among the converts to Christianity there were a significant number of educated people. Therefore, it is no coincidence that it was in Alexandria that a “catechetical school” or “catechetical school” appeared; having arisen initially as a school intended to instruct pagans and “catechumens” in the fundamentals of Christ. faith, it gradually turned into a kind of theological Academy.
The emergence and initial stage of the school’s existence are practically not covered by written sources, but, according to legend, it was founded by the ap. Mark. The succession of leaders (didascals) of this school has been observed since the end. II century, although the chronology of their activities is not always established accurately. The first didaskal of the Alexandrian school known to us was Panten(late 2nd century), not only a brilliant mentor, but also a talented preacher and missionary; followed by: Clement of Alexandria(approx. 200 - 202/03), Ori-gen(203-231), St. Herakl(231-232) and St. Dionysius(232-264/65) (who later occupied the See of Alexandria), Theognostus(265-280), Pie-riy(c. 280 - early 4th century), sschmch. Peter, ep. Alexandrian (d. 311). The Alexandrian school reached its peak under Origen, who attracted many students. The Dida-skala school enjoyed great influence in the Alexandrian Church and sometimes had assistants (like assistants to professors); at least such an assistant (in the person of Herakles) is mentioned by Origen. The curriculum at the school during its heyday probably included 3 stages: a range of general education subjects; philosophy, where a set of philosophical systems was studied; theology, in which exegesis occupied a central place, but perhaps also a course in a kind of “systematic theology” was taught. The full period of study lasted most likely 5 years, and the study of science was in close connection with education (“gnosis” was not separated from “practice”). Under Clement and Origen, the school also had a pronounced missionary character: they tried to show educated pagans that Christianity was the highest and only true wisdom.
With the advancement of K-field as the main cultural center of the late Roman (Byzantine) Empire, the Alexandrian school gradually fell into decline (at the end of the 4th - beginning of the 5th century). The “daughter institute” of the Alexandrian school was the school founded in Caesarea in Palestine by Origen, who transferred his rich teaching experience to Palestinian soil (after 231); Christ was educated in this school. education of St. Gregory the Wonderworker, reporting a lot of valuable information about her in his “Gratitude to Origen.” In general, the Alexandrian school as a theological direction defined many. essential features of all subsequent Orthodoxy. theology. Adjacent to it are the Cappadocian St. fathers. The influence of secret visual theology, characteristic of a number of its representatives, is undoubtedly felt in the Areopagitica, in the works of St. Simeon the New Theologian(c. 949-1022) and late Byzantine. hesychasts; The main theological and ideological postulates of this school were developed in the work of St. Maximus the Confessor(c. 580-662).
(Theological schools of the Ancient Church // PE)
The first head of the Alexandria School known to us was Panten. Information about him is preserved by Eusebius of Caesarea: “At this time, the training of believers there was led by a man known for his education, named Panten. According to ancient custom, there is a school in Alexandria where the Holy Scriptures are taught. It exists to this day, and we have heard that it is taught by people strong in words and zealous in the study of the divine. At that time, they say, the mentioned husband, brought up in the rules of Stoic philosophy, especially shone. He, according to stories, showed such an ardent zeal for the Word of God that he was a bold preacher of the Gospel of Christ among the pagans in the East and even reached the land of the Indians... Panten improved a lot at the Alexandrian school; he guided him to death, explaining both in writing and in live conversation the treasures of divine dogmas.” (Eusebius Pamphilus. Church ist. 5, 10).
CLIMENT OF ALEXANDRIA
Panten's successor as rector of the Alexandrian School was Titus Flavius Clement. Little is known about his life. Supposedly he was born in Athens, into a pagan family, around 150. After his conversion to Christianity, he traveled to southern Italy, Syria and Palestine, where he listened to the lessons of prominent Christian teachers. The search for a teacher led Clement to Alexandria, where he entered the catechetical school, which was then led by Panten. Having entered the school, Clement became Panten's closest student and associate. After the death of the teacher, he became his successor as head of the Alexandria School.
Nothing is known about Clement's activities in Alexandria. At the beginning III c., when the persecution of Septimius Severus against Christians began, Clement was forced to leave Egypt. Together with his student Alexander, later Bishop of Jerusalem, he fled to Cappadocia. Clement died no later than 215.
Clement considered his main task to expound Christian doctrine in the language of the educated Hellenes of his time. He had deep knowledge of ancient philosophy, poetry, mythology, archeology and literature. He knew the Holy Scriptures and the writings of early Christian authors, as well as heretics of the 1st and 2nd centuries very well. Clement sought to transform Christian theology into a philosophical system with scientific foundations. He argued that the Christian religion and pagan philosophy are not hostile, but mutually complement each other. The seed of the Logos was also present in pre-Christian scholarship, and Christians have the right to use everything accumulated by antiquity. Clement develops the themes of the early apologists, especially Justin the Philosopher.
Clement conceived a monumental philosophical trilogy “Protreptic” - “Teacher” - Didaskal.” The main idea of all three parts is to show the Christian's gradual ascent to true "gnosis" (knowledge) under the guidance of the Logos. The Divine Logos (Christ) appears in the first part as a “exhorter”, denouncing paganism and calling to turn to true faith, in the second - as a “teacher” (lit., schoolmaster), gradually leading those who believed in Christ to moral perfection, in the third - as a “didaskal” (teacher), revealing to the “initiates” the secrets of true gnosis. Clement wrote the first and second parts; the third part has come down to us under the name “Stromata” (letters, carpets, rags), reflecting its unsystematic nature.
The Exhortation to the Hellenes is Clement's first major philosophical work; it is addressed to pagans and is thematically related to the apologies of the 2nd century, containing polemics with pagan mythology and defense of the Christian faith. The direct continuation of the “Admonition to the Hellenes” is “The Teacher,” consisting of three books. It is addressed to those who have rejected idolatry and accepted the Christian faith. Clement teaches Christians to move away from the vicious life of their pagan contemporaries. He, however, is far from the rigorism characteristic of some early Christian writers (for example, Tertullian in his later treatises): he does not force the reader to reject the achievements of culture and science, renounce the world and take a vow of poverty. On the contrary, the life of the world must be filled with the Christian spirit. The Teacher contains many quotations from Plato, Plutarch, the Stoics and other ancient authors. The treatise ends with a hymn to Christ, which is probably a prayer of praise from the Alexandrian School.
He created the "Stromata" - eight books combined main theme the relationship of the Christian religion with Greek philosophy, and, more broadly, with secular scholarship in general. In Book 1, Clement defends philosophy against the opinion that it has no value for Christianity. In Book 2, Clement defends the true faith against philosophers. He proves that the best minds of antiquity were associated with the Jewish Old Testament tradition: Plato, for example, was an imitator of Moses. Books 3 - 7 are devoted to the refutation of heretical gnosis, which is contrasted with truly Christian gnosis with its characteristic moral perfection, purity and love of God. At the end of Book 7, Clement points out that he has not answered all the questions of the Christian life, and promises to write a new part or another work. The so-called 8th book, however, is not a continuation of the 7th: it is a collection of individual thoughts used in the previous books. These fragments were probably not intended by the author for publication: they were collected after his death.
ORIGEN
Central figure in the theological life of the Christian East in the 3rd century. was, undoubtedly, the Alexandrian presbyter Origen - “an outstanding teacher and scientist of the early Church, a man of unblemished character, encyclopedic education, one of the most original thinkers the world has ever seen,” and at the same time a theologian who made serious dogmatic errors that led to entails his subsequent condemnation. Origen “can truly be called the founder of Christian theology,” says Archpriest John Meyendorff. - While Irenaeus, Ignatius, Tertullian and Cyprian were churchmen who had to deal with pressing theological problems dictated by a specific situation, Origen was the great Christian philosopher who first attempted a systematic explanation of Christianity in terms of Hellenic thought. In terms of the scope of his literary and teaching activities, Origen incomparably surpassed Clement. Origen was born around 185, most likely in Alexandria. His father, Leonidas, who gave him an education in the Holy Scriptures and secular sciences, died as a martyr during the persecution of Emperor Septimius Severus in 202. Young Origen was eager to share the fate of his father and wanted to follow him to prison, but his mother tried to prevent his intentions. After the death of his father, sixteen-year-old Origen was left alone with his mother and six younger brothers. Their property was confiscated, and Origen began to earn a living by teaching grammar. With his extraordinary abilities and zeal for the faith, he quickly gained fame in Christian circles. Since there was no one in Alexandria after the beginning of the persecution who was capable of performing the duties of a catechumen, Bishop Demetrius entrusted this ministry to the young Origen. At the age of 18, he became the head of the Alexandria Catechetical School, replacing Clement in this post, who fled to Palestine. Eusebius also reports that Origen, having understood the Gospel words about eunuchs, “who made themselves eunuchs for the Kingdom of Heaven” (Matthew 19:12), literally hastened to put this commandment into practice. Eusebius calls Origen’s self-castration a “childish transgression,” testifying “to a soul that is young, immature and at the same time deeply religious and striving for self-restraint.” In the case of Origen, it should be remembered that in his ascetic practice, as well as in his theological quests, he was one of the pioneers who, at the cost of his own mistakes, paved the way for subsequent generations of Christians. Origen was one of the first to try to put into practice the ideal of the “true philosopher,” which later (in the 4th-5th centuries) was embodied in Christian monasticism.
Origen's teaching activity in Alexandria was interrupted by occasional, sometimes quite long trips. Around 212 he traveled to Rome. There he met Presbyter Hippolytus, one of the most famous Western theologians of the 3rd century, who preached a sermon in his presence. Around 215 or a little earlier, Origen was sent by Bishop Demetrius to Arabia to negotiate with the ruler of that region. From there, at the invitation of the mother of Septimius Severus, he went to Antioch and then returned to Alexandria. In 216, during the persecution of Emperor Caracalla, Origen found refuge in Palestine, where, at the request of Bishops Theoctistus of Caesarea and St. Alexander of Jerusalem preached in the temple and explained the Holy Scriptures. However, Bishop Demetrius of Alexandria was dissatisfied with Origen's popularity in Palestine and sent his deacons for him along with a letter in which he reproached the Palestinian bishops for allowing Origen, a layman, to preach in their presence. Origen returned to Alexandria and continued his usual studies.
Between 215 and 220 Origen began to create his major exegetical works. Around 231, Origen went to Greece on church business. Passing through Palestine, he received presbyterian consecration in Caesarea at the hands of Bishops Theoctistus and Alexander. What prompted the Palestinian hierarchs to ordain Origen, contrary to the canons that prohibited the ordination of clergy from a foreign diocese, remains unknown. It can be assumed that by this time Origen was already in conflict with his ruling bishop. In any case, as soon as the news of Origen’s ordination reached Demetrius of Alexandria, he convened a council at which he excommunicated Origen from the Church. At another council, Demetrius deprived Origen of the priesthood. The bishop of Alexandria motivated his rebuke by the fact that Origen, being an eunuch, had no right to perform priestly service. After the death of Demetrius in 232, Origen returned to Alexandria, but the new bishop Herakles confirmed the bans imposed by his predecessor. The Council of Rome supported the decision of the Alexandrian bishops, while the bishops of Palestine and Arabia seemed to ignore them. Origen had no choice but to leave Alexandria forever and move to Caesarea Palestine.
Here he founded a theological school, modeled after the Alexandria School, which he led for 20 years until his death. The course of study at the Caesarea School was approximately the same as at the Alexandria School. During this period, St. studied with Origen. Gregory, later Bishop of Neocaesarea, who wrote a “Gratitude Speech” in his honor. In it St. Gregory calls Origen "the man who appearance and by all accounts a man, but for those who can penetrate with their gaze into the depths of his inner qualities, he is already endowed with the highest advantages that bring him closer to the Divine.” St. Gregory thanks Origen for converting him from paganism to the true faith, teaching him all the sciences, and instilling in him a love for the Holy Scriptures.
Origen's fame in the last period of his life was so great that each of his lectures was recorded by stenographers. The Bishop of Caesarea of Cappadocia, Firmilian, repeatedly invited Origen to his city to preach, or he himself came to see him in Caesarea in Palestine. Around 244, Origen traveled to Arabia, where he confronted Bishop Beryl, who had fallen into the monarchist heresy (Ibid., 6, 33).
During the persecution of Christians by Emperor Decius (251), Origen was arrested and tortured. Origen was released from custody, but torture and imprisonment destroyed his health, and he died around 253 in Tire. The importance of Origen for Christian theology cannot be overestimated. In his works, he developed triadological and Christological issues in those aspects in which they were considered by theological thought for many subsequent centuries. He laid the foundation for theological terminology, which was used by all major church writers after him. He formulated the fundamental principles of biblical exegesis, and all later commentators on the Old and New Testaments have more or less followed in his footsteps. He made an attempt at a critical-textual comparative analysis of Greek translations of the Bible, unprecedented in the early Church. Origen's ascetic writings had a huge influence on the development of monastic writing.
However, in his theological boldness, Origen sometimes expressed private opinions that did not agree with Orthodox Tradition and borrowed from teachings alien to Christianity. For example, in the writings of Origen one can find traces of the ancient doctrine of the pre-existence of souls. He was a supporter of the theory of “apocatastasis” - the restoration of all creation to its original state after the end of the world. Origen's triadology shows signs of subordinationism. Origen did not present the controversial opinions he expressed as general church teaching, and perhaps he would have renounced them if during his lifetime a Local or Ecumenical Council had pointed out their erroneous nature. This, however, did not happen, since the theological thought of his time had not yet matured to the dogmatic issues that he touched on in his writings. It took the Church three centuries to comprehend Origen, evaluate his strengths and weaknesses, and pass judgment on him.
Disputes about Origen began during his lifetime and continued after his death. There is reason to believe, contrary to Eusebius, that Origen was excommunicated by Demetrius of Alexandria not only for disciplinary reasons, but also for his dogmatic errors. Eusebius himself indirectly points to this when he says that Origen “wrote letters to Fabian, Bishop of Rome, and many other bishops, about his Orthodoxy” (hence, his Orthodoxy was doubted).
A complete list of Origen's works, compiled by Eusebius of Caesarea as an appendix to the Apology of Origen, contains two thousand items. Saint Epiphanius of Cyprus (Panarion, 64, 63) estimated Origen's treatises at six thousand. Blessed Jerome writes that Origen “gave a thousand or more discourses in the Church, and also published countless commentaries... Who among us can read as much as he wrote?” Origen was one of the most prolific writers in the history of the Church. Only a small part of his literary heritage has survived, but it amounts to seven voluminous volumes in the Patrology of Min.
St. Gregory the Wonderworker
According to blzh. Hieronymus of Stridonsky he originally bore the name Theodore. Eusebius Caesarea, reporting that many students from different places flocked to Origen in Caesarea Palestine, notes that of them he knows Theodore as the most prominent. The name change was probably associated with baptism. The saint came from a noble and wealthy family: his mother wanted to give him the kind of education that children of noble birth received. His initial upbringing was pagan. At the age of 14 he lost his father. “The loss of his father and orphanhood” were for him “the beginning of true knowledge”: at this time he first “turned to the true and saving Word,” but outwardly his life did not change. After finishing his education at a grammar school, Gregory, at the request of his mother, entered the school of a rhetorician. To improve his education, he and his brother Athenodorus went to the city of Verit (Beirut), where the largest law school in the East was located. Arriving in Caesarea Palestine, the brothers wanted to listen to Origen, who at that time founded a school here similar to the one in Alexandria.
The meeting with Origen determined the future life of G. Ch. Noticing the talents of the brothers, Origen decided to make them his students and convinced them of the benefits of philosophy. The next stage of education was ethics, and Origen sought, according to the instructions, to form the character and lifestyle of G. Ch., making him fall in love with Christ. virtues (Ibid. 115-149). From the study of pagan philosophers, he gradually led the student to biblical exegesis.“There was nothing forbidden for me...” said G. Ch., “but I had the opportunity to gain knowledge about every teaching, both barbarian and Hellenic... and divine and human.”
After completing his 5-year study in Caesarea in Palestine, G. Ch., together with his brother Athenodorus, returned to his homeland. Soon he received a letter from Origen, in which he urged him to direct his talents and knowledge to the service of Christianity and engage in a careful study of the Holy Scriptures. Scriptures. In Neocaesarea, he decided to move away from the noise of the squares and from all city life and to remain in solitude with himself and through himself with God, but approx. 245 he was installed by Fedim, bishop. Amasia, bishop of Neocaesarea. According to St. Gregory of Nyssa, he at first did not want to accept initiation, fearing that “the concerns of the priesthood, like some kind of burden, would serve as an obstacle to his wisdom.” Therefore, Fedim, after much effort, “not paying any attention to the distance separating him from Gregory (for he was three days away from him), but looked up to God and said that God at this hour equally sees both himself and Moreover, instead of a hand, he imposes a word on Gregory, dedicating him to God, although he was not present in body, and assigns him this city, which until that time was obsessed with idolatry delusion.” he believed that he could not resist such an appointment, albeit an unusual one. After this, everything that was required by law for consecration as a bishop was done to him. After some time, G. Ch. received a secret teaching in revelation, according to which he preached the word of God in the church. The sermon had such an impact that if before him there were no more than 17 Christians in the city, then at the end of his life he carefully searched throughout the surrounding area to see if anyone else remained alien to the faith, and learned that more than 17 people remained in the old error. From the subsequent life of Gregory we know the fact of his participation, together with his brother Athenodorus and other disciples of Origen, in the Antioch Council against PavelISamosatsky(264) . According to the testimony of the blessed Theodorite, ep. Kirsky, “of those gathered, Gregory the Great, the famous, who performed the miracles sung by everyone for the sake of the grace of the Spirit dwelling in him, and Athenodorus, his brother, took precedence.” The saint died during the reign of the Emperor. Aurelian between 270 and 275. The name “Wonderworker” was established for him in the 5th century. Before this, the saint was called either Gregory the Great, or simply Gregory. The influence of G. Ch. on religion. the life of the Pontic country is attested to by St. Basil the Great, who reports, in particular, that the neo-Caesarians until the 2nd half of the 4th century. “they did not add any action, nor a word, nor any mysterious sign beyond those that he left.” According to St. Basil, G. Ch.’s place is among the apostles and prophets, for he “walked in one Spirit with them, throughout his life he walked in the footsteps of the saints, all his days he carefully succeeded in the life of the Gospel... like some luminous great the luminary illuminated the Church of God.”
Lit. G. Ch.'s activities were not extensive, which is largely explained by the nature and conditions of his episcopal service. Determining the true scope of G. Ch.’s legacy is complicated by the lack of a detailed list of his works in ancient monuments (for example, Eusebius of Caesarea), as well as handwritten collections of works.
Alexandria School, so-called catechetical or catechistic school ( τὸ τῆ)σ κατηχήσεως διδασκαλεῖον , Eusebius, Church. Ist.6,3). By this name we must understand not just a school in the broad sense of the word, that is, as a series of learned men connected among themselves by the unity of ideas developed by one chapter, but also, at least from Panten (in the second half of the 2nd century), we must understand the formally operating a church-educational institution that had a specific structure and program. Just as the Jews had lower and higher schools: “Beth Soferim” for familiarization with the priesthood. law and history and the “Beth Midrash” - for the explanation of Holy Scripture and for a deeper understanding of it, so soon after the apostolic time this same two kind of school must be distinguished among Christians, or, at least, it must be assumed that this twofold the target was pursued in the same establishment. The lower Christian schools had the task of supporting the work of the Christian mission and teaching Christian teaching to believers, along with catechumens who converted to the Christian religion from Judaism and paganism. Such schools arose wherever there were a significant number of converts to Christianity. Higher schools for a deeper understanding of Holy Scripture and the truths of faith were at first limited to simply the instructions of the apostles, bishops and apologists. Just as the apostles, through personal interviews, taught the most gifted spiritual persons, destining them for hierarchical and teaching positions, so did the bishops when they either themselves or with the help of capable teachers taught instructions in the Holy Scriptures, and for a deeper substantiation of Christian teachings were used by both secular sciences and philosophy. Of this kind was the school of Justin in Rome, who was listened to by the Syrian Tatian, and the school of Irenaeus, in Gaul, whose students Gaius and Hippolytus achieved high literary fame. If in apostolic times a simple presentation of the Gospel truths and events was sufficient for a proper acquaintance with the Christian doctrine of salvation, then later, when the struggle began that the church in the 2nd century was forced to wage against heretical gnosis, against Hellenistic educated pagans and Jews, for the establishment of Christian truths, it turned out to be necessary to scientifically develop the truths of faith, partly in order to successfully defend the teachings of the Christian religion against the ridicule and mockery of the Hellenes, partly in order to persuade philosophically educated people to the faith of Christ using the method of teaching familiar to them ( Eusebius, Ts.I. 6, 18), and provide future teachers and champions of the Christian religion with the same weapons that its opponents used. Under such circumstances, higher and lower schools little by little turned into formally organized church educational institutions with a more or less correct structure. The most important of them were in Alexandria, Caesarea, Jerusalem, Side, Edessa, Nisibia, Laodicea, and Scythopolis. Rome, Antioch, Constantinople and Carthage.
The oldest and most famous educational institution with a unique organization was the Alexandrian school, which, according to Euseius, “from ancient times existed there for the sacred sciences” (Ts.I. 5, 10) and was under the control of persons known for their eloquence and knowledge of theology. Eusebius in this place names the scientist Panten as the head of the school, but makes it clear that he was not its founder. Therefore, it is not incredible that the Alexandrian school in its original form and establishment originates from the Evangelist Mark, who founded the first Christian churches in Egypt, and precisely in Alexandria (Eusebius, Ts. I., 2, 16; Jerome, Be viris illustribus ., p. 8) and had a continuous series of teachers as his successors. In Alexandria, since the time of the evangelist Mark, there have always been church teachers, says Jerome in the indicated place (1. p. p. 36). Panten became the head of the catechetical school in 180, at the beginning of the reign of Commodus, and later worked together with his former student, Clement, and taught until the time of Caracalla (212).
We have only scant information about the course of development, direction and method of this catechistic school. Some people unjustifiably confuse this Christian school in Alexandria with the Alexandrian ones. educational institutions and they consider it a kind of modification and continuation of the pagan “Museum” or even think that it arose according to the model and under the influence of the latter. The course of development of Christian schools in antiquity outlined above is generally quite applicable to the Alexandrian catechism school, as is already indicated by the very order of the names by which it was known among the ancients: “mentor of the faithful,” “school of sacred sciences,” “school of Alexandria” ( Evs. Ts.I., 5, 10); “Catechetical school” – (ibid. 6, 3). But it would be one-sided to say that the expanded “Museum” founded by Ptolemy Lagus and Ptolemy II Philadelphus (284–247), the plan of which probably arose in the brilliant mind of Aristotle, remained without influence on the emergence and flourishing of the Christian catechism school. Thanks to the royal favor and generosity of Ptolemy, the “Museum” was elevated to the level of a kind of academy. The magnificent porticoes of the museum, decorated with columns, beckoned to intellectual interaction and scientific conversations, and then there were vast rooms in which scientific lectures were read. Many professors lived within the very walls of the museum. At the museum there was a rich, extensive library, the enormity of which can be judged by the fact that when during the siege of the city by Julius Caesar in 48 BC. 400,000 volumes were lost in the fire; there remains a second collection of 300,000 volumes. There, under the Ptolemies, the Holy Scriptures of the Old Testament were translated into Greek. All this greatly excited and influenced the development of the Christian catechism school. Representatives of a wide variety of philosophical systems spoke there. The teachings of Plato and Aristotle, Zeno and Epicurus found their adherents and interpreters, although in Christian times Eclecticism and Neoplatonism prevailed in philosophy. But other secular sciences were also carefully developed. People flocked there as if to a storehouse of learning open to everyone. talented youth from all over the world and listened to lectures on grammar (philology), rhetoric, poetry, philosophy, astronomy, music, medicine and other sciences and arts. Exactly the same sciences were taught in the catechism school. Origen taught, in addition to medicine, all the above-mentioned sciences, and in addition also arithmetic, geometry, physics, moral philosophy, expounded the teachings of all philosophers, and finally - and above all - explained Holy Scripture. All this, as Jerome notes, he did with such brilliant success that his lectures on secular sciences were attended by an extraordinary crowd of listeners. He gave these lectures with the goal of leading everyone in one way or another to faith in Christ. Later, due to overwork, he refused to teach literature, but he expounded the teachings of the Gnostic heretics and the theorems of philosophers. In this he followed the example of Panten, who brought great benefit with this method, as well as the example of Herakles, who, being a priest of the Alexandrian church, at the same time wore a philosophical mantle and continued to study Hellenistic literature (Eusebius, Ts. I., 6, 19).
Despite the fact that representatives of Christianity, out of precaution, tried to give the Christian religion the appearance of a philosophical system, teachers and students of the Alexandrian school did not always avoid violent persecution from the pagan mob. Often the pagans kicked out listeners from the house of catechists, in which teaching took place, and led them to death for the name of Christ, as a result of which they often had to change the premises in which teachers lived and students gathered. There appear to have been no fixed hours for teaching. At least the catechetes' home was always open to everyone. At all times of the day, people of both sexes, thirsty for knowledge and seeking salvation, flocked to learn. From morning to evening, even at night, the disciples converged on the house where Origen lived (Eusebius, Ts.I. 6, 8). Such an influx of students made it possible to increase the teaching forces to attract the best and most talented of the listeners. So, Panten attracted Clement, Origen - Herakles as assistants in the position of catechists. Teachers were not paid. If the teacher did not have his own funds, then the bishop took care of the necessary maintenance for him. But the generosity of wealthy laymen, like Ambrose in relation to Origen, often provided rich funds for educational and scientific purposes, for example, for copying books, catechisms, conversations, commentaries and other similar manuals. And the listeners themselves were not averse to accepting the costs of teaching, although Origen, who obtained the little he needed during his strictly ascetic life from the sale of the works of classical writers, refused all such offerings (Evs. 6, 8). Since the time of Constantine the Great, who granted the clergy many different privileges, they began to receive benefits, like teachers in general in the Roman Empire, from the state treasury. This is apparently indicated by Cassiodorus, speaking of public teachers (professos doctores) in Alexandria and Nisibia. Be that as it may, the Alexandrian catechetical school was and remained a church institution (schola ecclesiasrica, Hier. 1. p. p. 88), the highest authority of which belonged to the bishop. He appointed teachers and superiors and, in case of important reasons, could remove them (see the words of Origen). The heads of the school, successively or jointly, were Panten, Clement, Origen, Herakles, Dionysius the Great, Perius (m. b. Achilles), Theognostus (Serapion), Peter the Martyr (Macarius), Didymus the Blind and Rodon. It is believed that the teacher of the catechetical school was at one time also Arius, “a priest of the church in Alexandria, who was entrusted with the explanation of St. Scripture" (Theodoret, Church I. 1, 1). But this does not yet follow from these words of Theodorit, and this is more than doubtful. In addition to the aforementioned catechists, who, starting with Clement, themselves owed their education to this school, there were many learned men and confessors of the faith, bishops, priests and church writers, of whom Gregory the Wonderworker, Anatoly, who taught Aristotelian philosophy at the Alexandria school, Eusebius of Caesarea and Athanasius the Great. From the 4th century, the glory of the Alexandrian school gradually began to fade. Origen's errors and the Origenian controversy they caused undermined the importance of the school. His writings were considered the source of all new heresies. Excessive allegorism also undermined confidence in the Alexandrian way of explaining the Bible. As a result of Origen and Arian errors, the previous method also had to be abandoned. The more sensible of the Arians, wanting to understand for themselves all the secrets of the faith, in support of their positions, referred to the literal meaning of the passages of Scripture that seemed favorable to them. It was necessary, therefore, to examine the literal meaning in connection with the entire system of faith, according to certain, generally accepted rules, and to scientifically explain every puzzling place. St. followed this method. Athanasius the Great in his “4 books against the Arians”; but it especially gained significance in the Antiochian “interpretive school” that began to flourish in the 4th century, the glory of which eclipsed the brilliance of the Alexandrian school. With the resettlement of Rodon to Side, in Pamphylia (395), the number of Alexandrian abbots of the school ceased, and the school itself has not been mentioned since that time.
As in Alexandria itself, this main seat of Neoplatonic philosophy, where Potamon, Ammonius Saccus, Plotinus, Barbary (d. 304), Hierocles, Proclus and others were famous, so in the catechism school the speculative-idealistic direction of the spirit, inclined to contemplation, prevailed and mysticism, as a result of which the explanation of Holy Scripture was allegorical and mysterious. Most of these teachers were distinguished by their witty speculativeness, although fantasy often took precedence over sound reasoning. Allegorical explanations often degenerated into pettiness and curiosity. Denying the literal meaning of some passages harmed respect for Holy Scripture and relegated it to the level of books full of riddles and myths (see Origen below). Therefore, despite all the merits, the harm that individual teachers caused in their excessive zeal for the allegorical explanation of Holy Scripture and for the reconciliation of Hellenic philosophy with the Christian religion was also important. However, the reproach for Platonism and Neoplatonism, according to which the Alexandrians allegedly introduced the ideas of these philosophical systems into Christian teaching, in this general form unfounded. The form of presentation, methods of expression and method often brought them closer to the Neoplatonists, partly because they themselves had studied this philosophy before their conversion, partly because they were forced by the very circumstances to use its terminology and method in order to successfully fight the Jewish Neoplatonists and heretical Gnostics. Teachers and students in Alexandria, in general, adhered to eclecticism, and they did not adhere exclusively to any particular system, choosing what was suitable for them from all philosophical systems and using this to support and spread the cause of Christianity. And despite these shortcomings, the Alexandrian catechetical school was of great importance for the spread and defense of the Christian faith, for biblical criticism and exegesis. From it came the greatest theologians, like Athanasius the Great, this “father of Orthodoxy,” and the greatest exegetes and critical researchers of the biblical text, like Origen.
Kirchen lexikon Wetzer And Welte under the next Alexander Schule. T. I, pp. 524 et seq.; in Russian literature: Dmitrievsky, Alexandria School (Kazan, 1884), D.P. Mirtov, Temper. teachings of Clement Alexander. St. Petersburg 1900
