Pricing policy in enterprise marketing. Pricing policy and its role in the activities of the enterprise

Price is the only element of the marketing mix that provides the company with real income. In the market, price is not an independent variable. The price level depends on the implementation of other elements of the marketing mix, as well as on the level of competition and the state of consumer demand.

The main goal of pricing policy in marketing- maximize profit for a given sales volume per unit of time. When developing a pricing policy, each enterprise independently determines for itself the tasks to be solved, which may be diametrically opposed, for example:

• revenue maximization, when revenue is more important than profit. For example, for seasonal goods or goods with a limited shelf life;
• price maximization, when the image of the product is more important than sales volumes. For example, to artificially limit demand due to the inability to satisfy it (demarketing);
• maximizing sales volumes when market retention is more important than profit. For example, to retain or conquer a market;
• increased competitiveness when sales volume is determined by price. For example, when selling goods with high elasticity of demand;
• ensuring a given profitability, when maintaining profitability comes first. For example, in the production and sale of consumer goods.

Thus, the main feature of pricing policy in marketing is its focus on making a profit. This is always a double-edged sword. Profit can be made by either raising the price to increase profits (which risks losing customers) or lowering the price to attract buyers (which can lead to a loss of profitability). The task of marketing is to choose the optimal pricing option.

1. Price categories and types of prices

Typically there are three price categories on the market: high, middle and low. They determine the features of pricing policy and pricing strategies used in the market for product positioning.

• Highest price category implies a high price and relatively high profit per unit. At the same time, this is also a large expense for promoting the product and positioning it as the best on the market. And maintaining quality at a competitive level requires significant costs. Example: selling Coca-Cola sparkling water with national advertising, “giving away” refrigerators to retailers, etc.
• Average price category implies average price, average product quality and average profit level. Sellers of goods in this category do not pretend to be price leaders in the market and focus on mass buyers. Example: sparkling water from any major domestic manufacturer.
• Lowest price category implies a low price, low quality and lack of funds to promote the product. The price itself in the lower price category acts as an incentive for buyers to make a purchase. Example: carbonated water, semi-clandestinely produced by private entrepreneurs in Russia from German concentrate and tap water.

The specificity is that the interests of trade coincide with the interests of the manufacturer in the highest price category, are independent of them in the middle category and directly contradict in the lowest. The same bottle of cheap sparkling water takes up the same amount of space on the display case as a bottle of Coca-Cola, and produces several times less profit.

• the base price is the price that the seller focuses on. It consists of total costs and the minimum acceptable profit margin. Below this price the seller will not sell his goods. Otherwise, it will lose competitiveness in the market;
• fair price- this is the price that the buyer focuses on; this is a stereotype in his mind. A fair price, despite its subjectivity, has a decisive influence on buyer behavior. They will pay above this price only if there are unique characteristics that distinguish the product from analogues available on the market.

The main function of pricing policy is to ensure the maximum difference between the fair price in the minds of consumers and the seller's base price. The greater the difference, the greater the total profit, either from lowering price and increasing sales volume, or from increasing price and profit per unit. This is a difficult task, since any pricing decision must be planned and prepared.

In marketing, the cost determines only the lower limit of the price of a product, below which the seller is not ready to sell his product. The upper limit of the price of a product is determined by the willingness of buyers to pay a higher price for it.

The task of marketing is not simply to sell a product as expensive as possible. It is much more important to justify the inflated price and position the product in the market so that consumers take this price for granted. In the market, what matters is not the price that the seller wants to receive for his product, but the one that the buyer is willing to pay for this product. Therefore, pricing policy is the most effective tool of competition. It is much easier to change the price than to change the production technology of a product, develop new sales channels, or change consumer perception.

Price competition implies two main directions of competitive behavior in the market.

• Overpricing to position the product as an elite and high-quality product. The buyer, without deep knowledge about the product, often focuses on price as the most accessible indicator of quality.
• Using a low price to prevent new competitors from entering the market and displacing old ones from it. In marketing, this is called “establishing a high barrier to entry into the market” and “dumping.”

2. Pricing policy structure

Pricing policy in marketing, like product policy, consists of two interrelated components - pricing policy and price management policy.

Pricing Policy consists in establishing a maximum price for a product, as well as its positioning within the selected price category (according to price level). Pricing is carried out taking into account the range and quality of goods, their usefulness, significance, consumer demand, the activities of competitors, as well as prices for analogous and substitute goods. The concepts of utility and value come from general economic theory. They reflect the relationship between the objective and the subjective in the perception of goods by consumers. For example, milk is healthier, but how many beer lovers do we have...

Pricing policies are most relevant for promoting new or updated products (that is, perceived by consumers as new), as well as for promoting old products in new markets. After a product is introduced to the market and positioned in the perception of consumers, the importance of pricing policy decreases sharply. Price management policy comes first here.

Price management policy consists in maintaining actual prices and regulating conditional prices based on the characteristics of consumer demand and competition in the market. Conditional prices are understood as prices (fair, marginal) that the consumer is guided by when making a purchasing decision. Regulation refers to the management of conditional prices to obtain maximum profits due to the difference between them and the base prices.

Strategic price management is carried out in two main areas:

1. through price increases in the case where the product has no analogues and a small sales market, up to the value beyond which buyers begin to refuse to purchase:
2. through price reduction, when the product has a large sales market and competitors’ prices are higher, to the point beyond which the total profit from price promotion of sales will not cease to cover the losses from price reductions.

These are two extremes, the simplest options for behavior, like plus and minus on a graph. There can be a huge number of options between them, depending on the specifics of the market situation and the specifics of the enterprise’s activities, as well as other factors.

Tactically, price management is carried out through discounts and price discrimination among buyers.

3. Discounts and price discrimination

Discounts are the simplest, fastest and most effective marketing tool. Their only weak point is that discounts cannot be applied indefinitely, since consumers quickly get used to them and begin to take them for granted. The main criterion for the effectiveness of discounts is an increase in sales volumes.

General rule here it is: first there is a “cape”, and then a discount. In any case, the seller is guided in his activities by the real base price, and the buyer is guided by the subjective “fair price”. The discounts applied may vary significantly, but the essence of the phenomenon does not change.

For example, seasonal discounts actually imply the sale of goods below cost at the end of the season. However, these costs are offset by increased markups at the beginning of the season. It is unreasonable to expect the seller to trade at a loss. Otherwise, consumers may perceive a price reduction as a sign of the product’s uncompetitiveness, and a price increase as an unreasonable desire of the seller for excess profits.

Price discrimination involves selling the same product to different categories of consumers at different prices at the same time and in the same place. For example, retail chains targeting middle-income consumers often introduce discount cards for pensioners in order to simultaneously reach this market segment.

Activities for flail management can vary significantly. They may include different price categories, price regulation, various discount systems, etc. It is not necessary to use all marketing means at the same time. Often a small number of them is enough to gain a competitive advantage in the market.

For example, a small store reduces the retail price of one of the consumer goods in its assortment to the level of the purchase price in the hope that customers will simultaneously buy other goods at the “regular” price. If the marketing result is achieved, then the cumulative increase in sales volumes will allow you to negotiate an additional discount on this product with the supplier and maintain a competitive advantage.

4. Price elasticity of demand

Depending on market conditions, conditional prices (on price tags) may be increased to increase profits per unit of goods sold or decreased to increase profits from increased sales volumes. This depends on many reasons, among which the most important is the elasticity of demand for the product

Demand is said to be elastic when consumers cannot find significant differences between competing products when there is a large number of sales and a relatively low price per unit of the good (for example, bread). Demand is said to be inelastic when there is no competing product and consumer demand exceeds supply (for example, the iPad).

Price elasticity of demand is expressed through demand elasticity coefficient Ec.

Ets = (Percentage change in the quantity of products sold) / (Percentage change in price)

This coefficient will always be negative, and its value will be determined based on the deviation of the resulting value from unity (the result of division). The negativity of the final indicator does not matter, so the result is calculated modulo (that is, without taking into account the sign). This is a universal method that allows you to quickly determine the specifics of market demand and make a decision in favor of increasing or decreasing the price.

Option 1. If the value of the coefficient Ec > 1, then the enterprise sells a product whose price demand is elastic. For example, an increase in the retail price of a product by 10% led to a decrease in sales by 15% or, conversely, a decrease in price by 10% led to an increase in sales by 15%. This means that:

• the product is purchased by stable categories of consumers who immediately respond to price changes;
• purchase costs take up a significant part of their budget;
• the product has analogues offered by competitors.

Conclusion: in these conditions, an increase in revenue is possible only by reducing the price or modernizing the product in a way that will cause a decrease in the elasticity of demand.

Option 2. If the value of the coefficient Ec< 1, то предприятие реализует товар, спрос на который неэластичен. Например, увеличение цены на 20 % привело к снижению продаж лишь на 10% или, наоборот, снижение цены на 20% привело к увеличению продаж только на 10%. Это означает, что:

• the number of competitors selling this product is small;
• consumers are insensitive to price changes;
• all other things being equal (if we are not talking about a monopolist), the lower the elasticity of demand, the smaller the share of product costs in the consumer’s budget.

Conclusion: under these conditions, an increase in revenue can only occur as a result of an increase in the price of the product.

Option 3. If the value of the coefficient Ec = 1, then a change in the price of the product does not affect the amount of revenue received from sales. For example, an increase in price by 20% led to a decrease in sales by 20% or, conversely, a decrease in price by 20% led to a similar increase in sales. This never happens. There will still be minimal deviations from 1.

That's not the question. If, as a result of an experiment with prices, the deviation from 1 is large enough, then something urgently needs to be done with prices. If the deviation is small, then the pricing policy corresponds to the characteristics of demand in the market.

Mikhail Leonidovich Kaluzhsky- Candidate of Economic Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Economics, Management and Marketing VZFEI (branch in Omsk), expert of the Elitarium distance education center

price strategy pricing market

Price as an element of the marketing mix

The main core of the theory and practice of marketing is the marketing complex. Product, pricing, sales and communication marketing policy- four main elements of the marketing mix. The marketing mix also provides a good basis for building a marketing plan. To do this, it is enough to analyze the enterprise’s activities for each of the components.

The marketing mix is ​​a set of tools used in marketing to influence consumer demand. It includes four main elements of marketing, they are called “elements of the marketing mix”.

The first element of marketing is the product. The “product” element includes the following components:

• 1. Own goods;
• 2. Trademark;
• 3. Packaging;
• 4. Services;
• 5. Warranty;
• 6. Service.

The second element of marketing is price. The price element includes the following components:

• 1. Pricing is an activity related to setting the price of a product. Pricing is not done at random. There are certain patterns here: expensive goods require large promotional costs, and the price of cheap goods itself is an incentive to purchase. Much in pricing depends on the degree of segment saturation of the market, the activities of competitors and on the subjective perception of goods by consumers.
• 2. Discount - a reduction in the asking price of a product in order to stimulate sales. The general principle here is: the cape comes first, and then the discount. In any case, the seller is guided by the base price, below which he is not ready to sell, and the buyer is guided by the perceived price that he sees on the price tag. The main disadvantage of discounts is that buyers quickly get used to discounts, taking them for granted.

The third element of marketing is sales. The “sales” or “distribution” element includes two components:

• 1. Sales channels (product distribution, distribution);
• 2. Sales process.

The fourth element of marketing is communication. The “communication” or “promotion” element includes the following components:

• 1. Advertising;
• 2. Personal selling;
• 3. Propaganda;
• 4. Sales promotion. Kaluzhsky M.L. Business magazine “Marketing complex, elements of marketing 4P”, 2014 - 142 p.

The marketing mix is ​​the core on which marketing theory and practice are built. The main goal of marketing is to ensure predictability of the results of the enterprise's market activities, minimizing uncertainty and risk associated with the acquisition, production or sale of goods.

Price and pricing policy are important elements of the marketing mix and marketing activities. Future managers must master the concept of price at the corporate and marketing levels.

At the corporate level, price is the factor that drives long-term profitability; a sales tool that maximizes profits and a competitive tool.

At the marketing level, price is an element of the marketing mix; indicator of marketing efforts; factor of the consumer’s psychological perception of the “quality/price” ratio.

Price is the only element of the marketing mix that generates profit, while the other elements cause costs.

Price is the number of monetary units (or other goods, works, services) for which the seller agrees to sell, and the buyer is ready to buy a unit of goods or services. This definition presupposes the presence of a seller's price (offer price) - this is the amount of money that he wants to receive from the sale of a product, and a buyer's price (demand price) - the amount of money that the buyer is able and agrees to pay for the product. Since the aspirations of the buyer and seller are opposite, it is necessary to maintain a balance of their interests. It finds its expression through the equilibrium price. Raizberg B.A., Lozovsky L.Sh., Starodubtseva E.B. Modern economic dictionary. - 3rd ed., revised, additional. - M.: Infra-M, 2013-479 p.

The equilibrium price is the price at a similar level at which supply matches demand. It eliminates both shortages and excesses of goods and services, and also keeps prices from rising or falling. In market conditions, in order to ensure the social protection of enterprise teams, individual social strata and citizens, it is necessary to use state price regulation.

State pricing policy, as the most important element of the state’s economic policy, is carried out at the international and national levels through influencing market conditions and pricing rules and has tactical and strategic directions. The strategy is to achieve a certain level of price liberalization and reduce inflation. The tactical direction is the operational regulation of the pricing environment: establishing the areas of application of market and regulated prices, the procedure for their formation and control over current pricing.

From the buyer's point of view, the price consists of two parts. The first is the equivalent of a product of a certain quality. In this case, one economic entity reimburses the costs of another associated with the sale and production of a product. The amount usually reflects the compliance of the seller’s monetary requirement and the buyer’s agreement with this requirement. The second part of the price is the costs associated with the purchase that the buyer bears. When reimbursing such costs, the funds do not go to the seller of the product, but are used to be able to purchase the product or use it.

The importance of pricing as an economic tool is that it directly affects the nature of income (profit) extraction based on the results of the market activity of entrepreneurs. On the other hand, it is important what pricing concept is laid as the basis for a particular business, on what principles and with what reasoning the content of such activity of a market agent is built. The fundamental difference between the marketing approach to determining the selling price of a product and the classical price theory is that the requested price is not a product of rational calculation, but is based on the search for some optimal equilibrium market characteristic. And this search is associated with the analysis of sometimes unreliable information, the competitive environment, with the inclusion of commercial risk factors and other purely market elements in the calculation. But in any case, searching for a wound is serious analytical work. Most often in practice, such a search is based on the so-called “magic triangle” of pricing policy. Yanovsky A / Marketing [Text] // Formation of the pricing policy of the enterprise. - 2012. - No. 3. - pp. 117-121.

In a market economy, price performs the following functions:

1. Accounting, or the function of accounting and measuring the costs of social labor, is determined by the very essence of price, i.e., being a monetary expression of value, price shows how much it costs society to satisfy a specific need for a particular product. The price determines how much labor, raw materials, materials, components are spent on the manufacture of goods, and characterizes the efficiency of the labor used. Ultimately, the price reflects not only the total costs of production and circulation of goods, but also the amount of profit. In this function, price serves as a means of calculating cost indicators: quantitative (national income, gross domestic product, volume of capital investments, volume of trade turnover, volume of production of enterprises and industries, etc.) and qualitative (profitability, labor productivity, capital productivity, etc.).

In this capacity, price is one of the main indicators of production efficiency, serves as a guideline for making business decisions, and is the most important tool for intra-company planning.

2. The stimulating function of price is expressed in the encouraging or deterrent effect of prices on the production and consumption of various types of goods. The price stimulates the producer through the amount of profit contained in it.

Using price in this function, you can influence scientific and technological progress, increase product quality, save resource costs, change the structure of production and consumption. Stimulation is carried out by increasing the profit level in price, establishing premiums and discounts on the main price.

• 3. The distribution function of price is associated with the possibility of price deviation from value under the influence of market factors. This function consists in the fact that prices participate in the distribution and redistribution of national income between different sectors of the economy (forms of ownership, regions of the country, various social groups of the population, etc.). Fatkhutdinov R.A: Competitiveness of an organization in a crisis: economics, marketing, management. - M.: Marketing, 2012-544p.
• 4. The function of balancing supply and demand is expressed in the fact that through prices there is a connection between production and consumption, supply and demand. The price signals the emergence of imbalances in the spheres of production and circulation and requires the necessary measures to be taken to overcome them. This function is implemented through the mechanism of the law of supply and demand.
• 5. The function of price as a criterion for the rational placement of production is manifested in the fact that with the help of the price mechanism, capital is transferred from one sector of the economy to another and within individual sectors, to where the rate of profit is higher. Peter R. Dixon. Marketing Management / Ed. prof. Vlasova V. M. - M.: Finance and Statistics, 2012. - 416 pp.:

The price system is a single, ordered set of different types of prices that serve and regulate economic relations between participants in national and world markets. Let's take a closer look at some of the types of prices.

Setting prices by stages of pricing reflects the quantitative relationship between prices that develop as goods, works, and services move to the final consumer. The price at each previous stage of the movement of goods is an element of the price of the subsequent stage.

Manufacturer prices and wholesale prices are formed at the stage of production of goods, are intermediate, and must compensate for the costs of the manufacturer of goods, works, services for production, sales and provide the enterprise with the planned level of profit. Wholesale prices include indirect taxes in addition to manufacturer prices. Indirect taxes constitute the most important items of federal budget revenue. These are excise tax and VAT. Selling prices of supply and sales organizations are formed at the mediation stage. In addition to the selling price, intermediary surcharges are included. In Russian practice, an intermediary markup can have different names, for example, a discount, a fee or commission, or an intermediary markup. In any case, this is the price for the services of an intermediary to promote goods from the manufacturer. Danilova L.L. Marketing pricing policy // Marketing and advertising. - 2013. - No. 4. - p.32. The surcharge includes costs, VAT and the intermediary's profit. The formation of supply and sales prices and in retail trade organizations is based on purchase prices excluding VAT with the addition of a trade markup and VAT. The amount of VAT payable to the budget by enterprises engaged in the purchase and sale of goods is determined as the difference between the tax amounts received from buyers on goods sold and the VAT amounts actually paid by suppliers of these goods. Retail prices are set in the retail trade in addition to purchase prices, including trade markups. They provide the necessary conditions for profitable retail operations.

Grouping of prices by transport component is carried out depending on the procedure for payment of transport costs; in practice, this is reflected in the price franking system. Franco means to what point on the way the product moves from the manufacturer to the consumer, transportation costs are included in the price.

At the supplier's ex-warehouse price, all costs of delivering products from the supplier's warehouse to the final destination are paid by the buyer in addition to the purchase price of the goods. At this price, consumers are interested in minimizing transportation costs and purchasing goods in nearby geographic locations. In contrast, the ex-warehouse price indicates that the price includes all transport costs. This method involves the company forming a single price for all buyers, regardless of their location, including the same amount of transportation costs, which is calculated as the average cost of all transportation. Titov, V.I. Analysis and diagnostics of financial and economic activities of an enterprise: textbook [Text] / V.I. Titov. - M.: Publishing and trading corporation "Dashkov and Co", 2011. - 352 p.

Differentiation of prices according to the nature of the information contained in it. The prices of actual transactions contain information about the real prices of purchase and sale of goods and services on the market, are recorded in special commercial documents, contracts, invoices and reflect the actual terms of the transaction, quantity and quality of goods, terms and conditions of delivery, terms of payment, guarantees, etc. The prices of actual transactions in most cases act as a reliable indicator of the real state of a particular market, but it is difficult to obtain information about these prices due to the fact that they often constitute a commercial secret of the company; In addition, the analysis of these prices is very difficult due to their significant differentiation depending on the specifics of the transaction. According to the method of establishing the price of actual transactions, they are divided into prices with subsequent fixation, fixed prices and moving (moving) prices. Fixed prices of actual transactions are established at the time of execution of the contract and do not change during the entire period of its validity. As a rule, they are used in transactions involving immediate delivery of goods or their delivery in a short time. The stability of market conditions has a significant impact on the use of these prices. Prices with subsequent fixation are used when executing a contract that specifies the moments and principle of fixation, for example, upon delivery of each batch of goods or before the start of each product year. Moving prices are determined at the time of concluding contracts, but a clause is made to revise them during the execution of the contract if elements of the price or market conditions change. Moving prices are mainly used in long-term contracts and when market conditions are unstable. Auction prices inform market participants about the possibilities of buying or selling goods at auction. Auction trading begins with the announcement of the batch (lot) number and the starting price. The final price of the previous auction can be taken as the starting price.

The price level is set taking into account information about the cost and quality of the goods, the balance of power between sellers and buyers, as well as trading techniques. The more often auctions are held, the smaller the price gaps. This is explained by minor changes in production costs and market conditions over time. Typically, goods at auction are sold at the maximum price offered by the buyer. Auctions play a key role in the market for fur products, precious stones, and antiques. Exchange prices reflect the results of exchange trading; they inform about the state of supply and demand for a given product. Typically, goods on exchanges are sold and bought without presentation or inspection.

Transactions are concluded on the basis of standard exchange contracts that strictly regulate the timing and quality of goods supplied. Prices of exchange transactions apply mainly to mass raw materials and food products. Reference prices inform the buyer about the conditions for the sale of goods, works, and services by the manufacturer (seller). They reflect, as a rule, the interests of the seller, are indicative, and may significantly deviate from the prices of actual transactions. For suppliers, reference prices serve as the basis for determining offer prices, and for buyers - as a guideline for negotiating (coordinating) transaction prices.

The difference between reference prices and prices of real transactions can reach up to 30%. Reference prices are widely published by manufacturers' associations, information agencies and bureaus, consulting and brokerage firms. Information about reference prices can be obtained without any difficulty. Gilyarovskaya, L.T. Economic analysis [Text]: textbook for universities / L.T. Gilyarovskaya. - 2nd ed., add. - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2011. - 615 p.

Price indices are indicators of price dynamics for a certain period. Individual price indices provide information on the price dynamics of individual goods, works, and services and are calculated as the ratio of the price of the reporting period to the price of the period taken as the basis for comparison. Consolidated price indices contain information about the dynamics of prices for a group of goods, defined as the ratio of the cost of a group of goods sold in the reporting period, calculated in actual prices and prices of the base period. Price composite indices are used as one of the main indicators of inflation processes in the real sector of the economy.

Thus, price is the number of monetary units (or other goods, works, services) for which the seller agrees to sell, and the buyer is ready to buy a unit of goods or services.

Determining the price of a product and forming the pricing policy of an enterprise is a complex process consisting of several stages.

The price and pricing strategy are influenced by a large number of factors:

• - type of market,
• - quality,
• - production costs,
• - volume of supplies,
• - terms of delivery,
• - the relationship between supply and demand,
• - price regulation (monopolistic, state),
• - price flanking,
• - cash position,
• - buyer-seller relationships and others. Soloviev, B.A. Marketing: Textbook - M.: INFRA - M, 2013. - 383 p.

When setting a pricing problem, one should proceed from the goals solved by the enterprise:

• - survival,
• - maximizing current profits,
• - gaining leadership and others.

An important stage in setting prices is determining the demand for a product (service). Any price changes usually affect the level of demand for the product.

The price is most directly affected by the cost of producing a product. If effective demand determines the maximum selling price, then gross production costs (the sum of fixed and variable costs) determine the minimum price for the product. The company strives to set a price that would fully cover the costs of production and sales of products, and also provide an acceptable rate of profit. To implement a well-thought-out pricing policy, it is advisable to carefully account for all costs and compare the cost structure with the planned production volumes. The price level set is significantly influenced by the pricing policy of competitors. Tsatsulin A.N. Pricing in the marketing system.-M.: IID "Filin", 2013.-296 p.

For this purpose, a study is carried out of the price and quality of competitors’ products, and the reaction of consumers; Possible retaliatory actions of competitors are predicted. The information obtained allows the company to determine its place and pricing policy among competitors.

Komi branch of the Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education

"Vyatka State Agricultural Academy"

Test

in the discipline "Marketing"

on the topic: "Pricing policy"

Syktyvkar 2012

Introduction

1. Pricing policy and its features

1.1 General ideas

2 Objectives of pricing policy

2. Pricing policy and marketing

Conclusion

References

Introduction

Market and price are categories determined by commodity production. Moreover, the market is primary. This is explained by the fact that in commodity production, economic relations are manifested mainly not in the production process itself, but through the market. It is the market that acts as the main form of manifestation of commodity-money relations and value categories. In a market economy, the law of value plays an important role, which is implemented through the mechanisms of pricing and balancing supply and demand. It serves as one of the regulators of social production, facilitating the flow of resources from one sector of the economy to another and within individual sectors. In this regard, the function of price arises as a criterion for the rational placement of production.

Main feature market pricing is that the real process of price formation here occurs not in the sphere of production, not at the enterprise, but in the sphere of product sales, i.e. in the market, under the influence of supply and demand, commodity-money relations. The price of a product and its utility are tested by the market and are finally determined in the market. Since only on the market does public recognition of products as goods occur, their value also receives public recognition through the price mechanism also on the market.

Target test work expand on the topic: “Pricing policy.” To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

.Consider the general features of pricing policy.

2.Identify the relationship between pricing policy and marketing.

1. Pricing policy and its features

.1 General ideas

Pricing policy is the principles and methods for determining prices for goods and services. There are micro (at the firm level) and macro (in the sphere of state regulation of prices and tariffs) levels of price formation. The company's pricing policy is formed within the framework of the company's overall strategy and includes a pricing strategy and pricing tactics. Pricing strategy involves positioning the proposed product in the market.

Pricing policy reflects the general goals of the company that it seeks to achieve by setting the prices of its products. Pricing policy is the general principles that an enterprise intends to adhere to in setting prices for its goods or services.

During the implementation of pricing policy, the company's management must adjust immediate activities and monitor the timing of strategy changes. Prices are actively used in competition to ensure a sufficient level of profit. Determining the prices of goods and services is one of the most important problems of any enterprise, since the optimal price can ensure its financial well-being. The pricing policy pursued largely depends on the type of goods or services offered by the enterprise. It is formed in close connection with planning the production of goods or services, identifying consumer requests, and stimulating sales. The price should be set in such a way that, on the one hand, it satisfies the needs and requirements of customers, and on the other hand, it helps to achieve the goals set by the enterprise, which is to ensure the receipt of sufficient financial resources. Pricing policy is aimed at establishing prices for goods and services depending on the current market conditions, which will allow the enterprise to obtain the volume of profit planned by the enterprise and solve other strategic and operational tasks.

As part of the overall pricing policy, decisions are made in accordance with the position in the target market of the enterprise, methods and marketing structure. The general pricing policy provides for the implementation of coordinated actions aimed at achieving the long- and short-term goals of the enterprise. At the same time, its management determines the general pricing policy, linking individual decisions into an integrated system: the relationship between the prices of goods within the company’s product range, the frequency of using special discounts and price changes, the ratio of prices to the prices of competitors, the choice of method for setting prices for new products.

Determining the pricing policy is based on the following questions:

what price a buyer would pay for the product;

How does a change in price affect sales volume?

what are the constituent cost components;

what is the nature of competition in the market segment;

what should be the level of the threshold price (minimum) that ensures the company’s break-even;

what discount can be provided to customers;

Will delivery of goods and other additional services affect the increase in sales?

The general policy of the enterprise should ultimately be aimed at meeting specific human needs. Therefore, determining pricing policy is one of the most important areas of practical activity of an enterprise.

1.2 Objectives of pricing policy

pricing demand marketing

In the absence of conditions for normal free pricing, one should either strictly limit the scope of free prices, or, allowing their free movement, carry out their state regulation. Therefore, it seems possible to determine the main objectives of pricing policy. When setting these objectives, first of all, the company will have to decide what specific goals it seeks to achieve with the help of a particular product.

The main goal and task of pricing policy on a market scale is to stop the decline in production, limit the rate of inflation, create incentives for commodity producers, and achieve an increase in income through production rather than prices. If the choice of target market and market positioning are carefully thought out, then the approach to developing the marketing mix, including the issue of price, is quite clear. After all, the pricing strategy is mainly determined by previously made decisions regarding positioning in the market. At the same time, the company may pursue other goals. The clearer the idea about them, the easier it is to set the price. Examples of such goals that are often encountered in practice can be: ensuring survival, maximizing current profits, gaining leadership in terms of market share or in terms of product quality.

Ensuring survival becomes the main goal and task of the company in cases where there are too many competitors in the market - manufacturers and there is intense competition or customer needs change dramatically. To ensure the normal operation of enterprises and the sale of manufactured goods, firms are forced to set low prices in the hope of a favorable response from consumers. In this case, survival in the global market for an enterprise becomes more important than profit. As long as the reduced prices cover the costs of the hardship, firms can continue to trade for some time.

Many firms strive to maximize current profits. They evaluate demand and production costs at different price levels and select the appropriate price that will maximize current profit and cash flow and maximize cost recovery. In all such cases, current financial indicators are more important for the company than long-term ones. Other firms want to be the market share leader because the company with the largest market share will have the lowest costs and the highest long-term profits. Achieving leadership in terms of market share, they reduce prices as much as possible. A variant of this goal is the desire to achieve a specific increase in market share.

A company can set itself the main goal and task to ensure that its products are of the highest quality of all those offered on the market. This usually requires pricing it high enough to cover the costs of achieving high quality and expensive research and development efforts.

2. Pricing policy and marketing

There are two main ways to set prices for manufactured products based on the costs of production and marketing of the product and on market opportunities (purchasing power). The first method is called cost-based pricing, the second is demand-based pricing. The third, less common, but also important method is pricing based on prices for competitive products.

There are several factors that a company directly influences when choosing a pricing method for its product:

The value factor is one of the most important factors. Each product is capable of satisfying some customer needs to a certain extent. To coordinate the price and utility of a product, you can: give the product greater value, educate the buyer through advertising about the value of the product, adjust the price so that it corresponds to the real value of the product.

Cost factor - costs and profit make up the minimum price of the product. The simplest way to set prices: given known costs and expenses, add an acceptable rate of profit. However, even if the price only covers expenses, there is no guarantee that the product will be purchased. This is why some manufacturing enterprises go bankrupt; the market can value their goods lower than the cost of their production and sale.

Competition factor - competition has a strong influence on pricing policy. You can provoke a surge of competition by setting a high price for a product or eliminate it by setting a minimum price. If a product requires a special production method, or its production is very complex, then low prices will not attract competitors to it, but high prices will tell competitors what to do.

Sales promotion factor - the price of the product includes a trade margin, which pays for the measures taken to stimulate the market. When releasing a product to the market, advertising needs to cross the threshold of perception before consumers become aware of the product. All funds spent on sales promotion must subsequently be recouped through product sales.

Distribution factor - the distribution of a good produced significantly affects its price. The closer the product is to the consumer, the more expensive it is for the manufacturer to distribute it. If the goods are supplied directly to the consumer, then each concluded transaction becomes a separate operation, the money intended for the supplier is received by the manufacturer, but its production costs also increase. The advantage of this distribution method is complete control over sales and marketing. When selling a product to a large retailer or wholesaler, sales are no longer counted in units, but in dozens, but control over sales and marketing is lost. Product distribution is the most important factor in marketing after the product itself. When purchased, a product rarely satisfies the needs of all customers completely. Therefore, manufacturers make concessions in quality, weight, color, technical data, etc. more or less willingly depending on the price level, but even if a given seller has the lowest prices on the market, no amount of advertising can compensate for the lack of the right product at the right time in the right place. Finding competent distributors who would actively undertake the sale of goods is a very expensive matter. They will want to be paid for storing goods in warehouses and distributing goods immediately after they are sold. This amount should be included in the price and not exceed similar costs of competitors.

Public opinion factor - people usually have some idea about the price of a product, whether it is a consumer product or an industrial product. When purchasing a product, they are guided by certain price boundaries, or price radius, which determines the price at which they are willing to buy this product. The enterprise must either not go beyond the boundaries of this radius in the prices of its goods, or justify why the price for it goes beyond these limits. The manufactured product may be superior to existing analogues in some qualities, and if such advantages are perceived positively by customers, then the price for it can be raised, but if the advantages of this product are not so obvious, it is necessary to resort to additional advertising or other marketing techniques to stimulate the sale of this product on the market.

Service factor - customer service is involved in the pre-sale, sales and post-sale stages of the purchase and sale of goods. Customer service costs must be included in the price of the product offered. Such expenses usually include: preparation of quotes, calculations, installation of equipment, delivery of goods to the point of sale, training and retraining of service personnel (salespeople, cashiers, consumer consultants), provision of a guarantee for the goods or the right to pay in installments. Many products offered in the market do not require after-sales service, but a significant group of consumer goods (such as groceries and convenience goods) require pre-sales service, such as displaying them or demonstrating their qualities. All this service offered must be repaid through the price of the product.

Choice pricing strategy constitutes the content of the enterprise's concept in determining prices for its products. This determines the planning of the enterprise’s revenue and profit from the sale of goods. An enterprise operating in market conditions, first of all, needs to develop a strategy and principles for determining prices, guided by which it can solve the problems facing it.

The absence of a clearly defined pricing strategy contributes to uncertainty in decision-making in this area by various departments of the enterprise (if it has a complex structure), can lead to inconsistency of these decisions and result in a weakening of the enterprise’s position in the market, losses in revenue and profit.

The company does not just set this or that price, it creates an entire pricing system that covers different goods and products within the product range and takes into account differences in the costs of organizing sales in different geographic regions, differences in demand levels, distribution of purchases over time and other factors. In addition, the company operates in a constantly changing competitive environment and sometimes itself initiates price changes, and sometimes responds to competitors’ price initiatives.

A firm's strategic approach to pricing depends in part on the stages of the product's life cycle. The market launch stage places especially great demands. A distinction can be made between pricing a genuine new product protected by a patent and pricing a product that imitates existing products.

Pricing a Genuine New Product - A firm introducing a patented new product to the market may choose either a skimming strategy or a strong market penetration strategy when setting its price.

Cream-skimming strategy - many firms that have created patent-protected new products based on major inventions or the results of large-scale and therefore expensive R&D, when the costs of developing a new market (advertising and other means of promoting products to consumers) turn out to be too high for competitors, when necessary to produce a new of a product, raw materials, materials and components are available in limited quantities or when it turns out to be too difficult to sell new products (if the warehouses of resellers are overcrowded, the economic situation is sluggish, and wholesale and retail trade enterprises are reluctant to enter into new transactions for the purchase of goods), at first set the highest prices possible for them in order to “skim the cream” from the market. At the same time, only some market segments accept the new product. After the initial wave of sales slows, the firm lowers the price to attract the next tier of customers who are satisfied with the new price. By acting in this way, the company skims the maximum possible financial cream from a variety of market segments. It is desirable to maximize short-term profits until the new market becomes subject to competition.

Using the market skimming method makes sense under the following conditions:

) there is a high level of current demand from a sufficiently large number of buyers;

) the costs of small-scale production are not so high as to negate the financial benefits of the company;

) a high initial price will not attract new competitors;

) a high price supports the image of a high quality product.

Strategy for strong market penetration - other companies, on the contrary, set a relatively low price for their new product in the hope of attracting a large number of buyers and gaining a large market share. An example of such a strategy would be the purchase of a large plant, setting the lowest possible price for a product, gaining a large market share, reducing production costs and, as they are reduced, continuing to gradually reduce the price. From a purely financial point of view, the position of an enterprise that follows this approach can be characterized by both an increase in the amount of profit and income on invested capital, and a significant drop in profitability. Therefore, when using intentionally low prices, enterprise management must calculate the possible consequences as accurately as possible, but in any case, the degree of risk is very high, since competitors can quickly react to price reductions and significantly reduce the prices of their products. When analyzing the market and drawing up a sales forecast for an enterprise introducing new products to the market at a price below average, one must also take into account that the size of the price reduction for its products should be very significant (30-50%). And this is even with a significantly higher level of product quality, if there are many consumers in a particular market who are willing to pay a higher price for products of improved quality or a higher technical level. In this case, it does not matter whether we are talking about the enterprise entering a new, but, in general, long-established sales market or about promoting a new product on a fairly well-known market. In both cases, the management policy should be approximately the same - to penetrate the market through noticeably lower prices, accustom the consumer to the brand of your company or give him the opportunity to understand the advantages of your products and, therefore, secure a sufficient market share and sales volume . Only when the product is recognized in the market and its advertising among consumers on the word-of-mouth principle has begun, can the company revise both its production programs and product prices in the direction of increasing them. pricing demand marketing product

Anti-competition strategy is designed to prevent potential competitors from entering the market; another purpose is to achieve maximum sales before a competitor enters the market. The price is therefore set as close as possible to the costs, which gives a small profit and is justified only by the large volume of sales. Small company could resort to this strategy to concentrate its activities on a small segment of the market: quickly enter it, quickly make a profit and just as quickly leave this segment.

The demand-following strategy is similar to the skimming strategy, but instead of holding the price at a constant high level and convincing buyers to enter a new level of consumption, the price is reduced under strict control. Often a product receives minor changes in design and features to make it significantly different from previous models. Sometimes you have to change to match the price reduction. appearance product, promotional activities, packaging or method of distribution. The price is held at each new reduced level long enough to satisfy all existing demand. As soon as sales volume begins to decline significantly, you should prepare for the next price reduction.

Thus, prices and pricing policy are one of the main components of marketing activities. Commercial results and the degree of efficiency of all production and marketing activities of a company or enterprise depend on how correctly and thoughtfully the pricing policy is structured.

Conclusion

The essence of a targeted pricing policy is to set such prices for goods and vary them depending on the position in the market in order to capture its share, ensure the competitiveness of goods in terms of price indicators, the intended volume of profit and solve other problems.

In a market economy, the success of any enterprise or entrepreneur largely depends on how correctly they set prices for their goods and services. But this is not so easy to do, because prices are significantly influenced by a complex of political, economic, psychological and social factors. Today the price may be determined by the amount of costs for the production of a product, and tomorrow its level may depend on the psychology of buyer behavior. Consequently, when setting the price of a product, an entrepreneur must take into account all the factors influencing its level and set the price in such a way as to make a profit.

However, at present, a significant part of entrepreneurs in our country do not have the necessary theoretical and practical knowledge of the complex pricing mechanism for goods and services. As a result, they often make serious mistakes when setting prices, which in some cases leads to significant losses and sometimes to bankruptcy of enterprises.

References

Daly J. L. Effective pricing is the basis of competitive advantage. - M.: Publishing House "Williams", 2004.- 345 p.

2. Evdokimova T.G., Makhovikova G.A., Zheltyakova I.A., Pereverzeva S.V. Theory and practice of price management. - St. Petersburg: Neva, 2004. - 258 p.

Kotler F. Fundamentals of Marketing / F. Kotler - St. Petersburg: JSC Koruna, 2002. - 697 p.

Krylova G.D., Sokolova M.I. Marketing. Theory and practice: Textbook for universities. -M.: UNITY-DANA, 2004. - 655 p.

Parshin V.F. Pricing policy of an enterprise: a guide / V.F. Parshin. - Minsk: Vysh. school, 2010. - 336 p.

Prices and pricing: Textbook for universities / Ed. V.E. Esipova. 4th ed. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2005. - 365 p.

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Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/17735847_151613720.pdf-img/17735847_151613720.pdf-1.jpg" alt=">Pricing policy in enterprise marketing">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/17735847_151613720.pdf-img/17735847_151613720.pdf-2.jpg" alt="> Questions: 1. Pricing policy as a component of the marketing mix. 2."> Вопросы: 1. Ценовая политика как составляющая комплекса маркетинга. 2. Связь ценовой политики с другими элементами маркетинговой деятельности. 3. Цели ценообразования с точки зрения маркетинга предприятия. 4. Ценовая политика на основе сокращения затрат. 5. Определение цены с целью максимизации прибыли. 6. Цена и жизненный цикл товара. 7. Принципы, применяемые при разработке ценовой политики.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/17735847_151613720.pdf-img/17735847_151613720.pdf-3.jpg" alt="> 1. Pricing policy as a component of the marketing mix Pricing policy is one"> 1. Ценовая политика как составляющая комплекса маркетинга Ценовая политика – одна из составляющих комплекса маркетинга, включающая установление фирмой цены на товар и способов их выравнивания в зависимости от ситуации на рынке с целью овладения определенной рыночной долей, обеспечения намеченного объема прибыли, подавления деятельности конкурентов и выполнения других стратегических целей. Цена - единственный элемент маркетинга-микс, приносящий доход, другие его составляющие увеличивают расходы предприятия.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/17735847_151613720.pdf-img/17735847_151613720.pdf-4.jpg" alt=">As a component of the marketing mix, pricing policy is developed taking into account: Ø company goals ;"> Как составляющая комплекса маркетинга ценовая политика разрабатывается с учетом: Ø целей компании; Ø внешних и внутренних факторов, влияющих на ценообразование; Ø характера спроса (в частности, степени эластичности по ценам); Ø издержек производства, распределения и реализации Ø ощущаемой и реальной ценности товара; Разработка ценовой политики включает: Ø установление исходной цены на товар; Ø своевременной корректировки цен с целью приведения их в соответствие с изменяющимися рыночными условиями, возможностями компании, ее стратегическими целями и задачами, действиями конкурентов.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/17735847_151613720.pdf-img/17735847_151613720.pdf-5.jpg" alt="> From a marketing point of view, the price of a product is an estimate of its consumer value"> С точки зрения маркетинга цена товара - это оценка его потребительской стоимости с позиции того, кто производит или обменивает товар. В этом определении отражены три существенных обстоятельства: 1) Цена согласовывается с потребительной стоимостью товара; 2) Цена согласуется с представлениями и оценками, кто производит или обменивает (продает) товар, а не с оценками потребителя; 3) Цены зависит от близости к конечному потребителю тех, кто предлагает товар!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/17735847_151613720.pdf-img/17735847_151613720.pdf-6.jpg" alt="> 2. Relationship of pricing policy with other"> 2. Связь ценовой политики с другими элементами маркетинговой деятельности Ценовая политика и стратегия, будучи самостоятельными сферами деятельности предприятия одновременно тесно связаны с другими элементами и направлениями маркетинговой деятельности: Ø - Цели ценовой политики вытекают из целей маркетинговой деятельности предприятия и служат одним из инструментов, обеспечивающих их достижение; Ø - Ценовая политика тесно связана с маркетинговыми исследованиями (по результатам исследований определяют цели, стратегии, задачи, принципы, методы установления цен); Ø - Ценообразование связано с сегментацией рынка;!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/17735847_151613720.pdf-img/17735847_151613720.pdf-7.jpg" alt=">Ø - Pricing is a means of implementing a marketing program, which provides flexible"> Ø - Ценообразование является средством реализации программы маркетинговой деятельности, что обеспечивает гибкое реагирование на изменение рыночной конъюнктуры; Ø - Ценовая политика и стратегия связаны с товарной политикой предприятия, потому что уровень цен на товары, которые дифференцируют, и динамика цен зависит от вида товаров, степени дифференциации продукции по уровню новизны.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/17735847_151613720.pdf-img/17735847_151613720.pdf-8.jpg" alt="> 3. Pricing goals from the point of view of enterprise marketing Targeted"> 3. Цели ценообразования с точки зрения маркетинга предприятия Целенаправленная ценовая политика в маркетинге заключается в необходимости устанавливать на свои товары такие цены и так изменять их в зависимости от ситуации на рынке, чтобы завладеть определенной долей рынка, получить намеченный объем прибыли и т. п.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/17735847_151613720.pdf-img/17735847_151613720.pdf-9.jpg" alt=">There are three main pricing objectives that a business can choose from:"> Различают три основные цели ценообразования, из которых может выбирать предприятие: 1. Ориентированные на сбыт - предприятие заинтересовано в росте реализации или максимизации доли на рынке, для увеличения объема реализации используется ценовая стратегия проникновения, связана с низкой ценой, которая предназначена для захвата массового рынка;!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/17735847_151613720.pdf-img/17735847_151613720.pdf-10.jpg" alt=">2. Profit-oriented - the enterprise is interested in maximizing profits, obtaining satisfactory"> 2. Ориентированные на прибыль - предприятие заинтересовано в максимизации прибыли, получении удовлетворительного дохода от оптимизации инвестиций или обеспечении быстрого поступления наличных; используются престижные (высокие) цены, которые предназначены для привлечения рыночного сегмента, больше обеспокоен качеством товара, его уникальностью или статусом, чем ценой;!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/17735847_151613720.pdf-img/17735847_151613720.pdf-11.jpg" alt="> 3. Focused on the existing situation - the enterprise seeks to avoid unfavorable"> 3. Ориентированные на существующее положение - предприятие стремится избежать неблагоприятных правительственных решений в сфере ценообразования, минимизировать результат действий конкурентов, поддерживать хорошие отношения с участниками каналов сбыта, уменьшать запросы поставщиков или стабилизировать цены; стратегия ценообразования разрабатывается таким образом, чтобы избежать спада в сбыте и свести к минимуму влияние рыночных факторов.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/17735847_151613720.pdf-img/17735847_151613720.pdf-12.jpg" alt="> 4. Pricing policy based on cost reduction The variable cost method allows you to determine"> 4. Ценовая политика на основе сокращения затрат Метод переменных затрат позволяет определить калькулирование цен. По этому методу цена будет определяться: Цс. з=Зпер. ед+Ппер Зпер. ед – сумма переменых затрат при производстве единицы продукции Ппер – покрытие переменных затрат Пер=Зпост. ед. +Пед Зпост. ед. –сумма постоянных затрат при производстве единицы продукции П ед – прибыль на единицу продукции Таким образом, окупаемость рассматривается при заданном уровне цен т. е переменные затраты окупаются всегда т. к возмещаются покупателем после реализации товара, а постоянные затраты окупаются только после реализации определенной партии покупок или объёма продаж.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/17735847_151613720.pdf-img/17735847_151613720.pdf-13.jpg" alt="> The break-even point of the product is calculated Post. z=Zpost. total/Pper Zpost total – sum of constants"> Точка безубыточного товара рассчитывается Опост. з=Зпост. общ/Ппер Зпост. общ – сумма постоянных затрат по предприятию Таким образом, эта окупаемость показывает, какой объём продукции нужно продать по рыночной цене чтобы возместить все постоянные затраты предприятия (прибыль=0). А для того, чтобы определить каким должен быть объём продажи нужно рассчитывать по формуле: Vпр=(Зобщ. пост+Пусл. общ)/Ппер Пусл. общ – сумма целевой прибыли Таким образом, применение данного метода позволяет определить наиболее выгодные для предприятия виды продукции. А это в свою очередь позволяет заменять отдельные виды продукции другими и при этом условно постоянные затраты не меняются. Т. о данный метод даёт возможность находить оптимальный вариант загрузки производства с точки зрения получения прибыли.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/17735847_151613720.pdf-img/17735847_151613720.pdf-14.jpg" alt="> 5. Setting prices to maximize profits Most firms want to set such"> 5. Определение цены с целью максимизации прибыли Большинство фирм хотят установить такую цену на свою продукцию, которая обеспечила бы им максимальную прибыль. Для того чтобы достигнуть данной цели, нужно определить величину предварительного спроса и предварительных издержек по каждой отдельной цене (т. е. ценовой альтернативе). Далее необходимо выбрать из этих альтернатив ту, которая в краткосрочном периоде принесет фирме максимум прибыли; Правило максимизации прибыли: в краткосрочном периоде фирма будет максимизировать прибыль, выпуская такой объем продукции, при котором предельный доход равен предельным издержкам (MR=MC)!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/17735847_151613720.pdf-img/17735847_151613720.pdf-15.jpg" alt="> Types of pricing strategies: high price strategy low price strategy"> Виды ценовых стратегий: стратегия высоких цен стратегия низких цен стратегия льготных цен стратегия цен, ориентированных на уровень конкуренции стратегия шкалы цен стратегия цен, учитывающих географический фактор ценовые линии смешанные стратегии Максимизация прибыли как цель ценовой политики может быть реализована при разных условиях хозяйствования и рыночной конъюнктуры: увеличение цены в связи с ростом капиталовложений, установление стабильного дохода на основе средней нормы прибыли, имеющей устойчивое положение на рынке, а также фирма, не уверенная в своем будущем и использующая выгодную для себя конъюнктуру.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/17735847_151613720.pdf-img/17735847_151613720.pdf-16.jpg" alt=">6. Price and product life cycle Life cycle analysis - LCA)"> 6. Цена и жизненный цикл товара Жизненный цикл (Life cycle analysis - LCA) - это составная часть концепции товара. С ее помощью описывается жизнь товара на рынке с момента разработки изделия до момента снятия его с производства и окончательного исчезновения с рынка. Выделяют следующие стадии LCA. 1. Стадия разработки и вступления товара на рынок. На данной стадии наблюдаются значительные научноисследовательские, опытно-конструкторские и производственные затраты. Конкуренты практически отсутствуют. Уровень цены говорит о качестве товара. Ценообразование необходимо вести так, чтобы цены компенсировали первоначальные затраты на разработку и производство товара. В данных условиях покупатель слабо информирован о товаре.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/17735847_151613720.pdf-img/17735847_151613720.pdf-17.jpg" alt="> 2. “Growth” stage. The appearance of a new product on the market leads To"> 2. Стадия «роста» . Появление нового товара на рынке приводит к появлению новых конкурентов. В результате для потребителей создается большая свобода выбора. Можно устанавливать высокие цены, даже выше, чем на предыдущей стадии. Важно, чтобы уровень цены соответствовал уровню качества товара. На данной стадии оправдано применение следующих стратегий ценообразования: 1) «снятия сливок» , или награды, когда цена устанавливается выше цены конкурентов, подчеркивая исключительное качество продукта. В этом случае ориентация делается на менее чувствительную к цене группу потребителей. Производители работают с отдельными сегментами рынка; 2) установления цены паритета. Осуществляется явный или тайный сговор с конкурентами или идет ориентация на лидера в установлении цены. Фирмы ориентируются на наиболее массового покупателя, т. е. фирма работает со всем рынком.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/17735847_151613720.pdf-img/17735847_151613720.pdf-18.jpg" alt="> The stage of “maturity” of the product. At this stage, saturation occurs in the market .Competition"> Стадия «зрелости» продукта. На данной стадии на рынке происходит насыщение. Конкуренция среди производителей данных товаров существенно ослабевает, поскольку некоторые из производителей уже замечают спад спроса. Кроме того, стремление завысить цены сопряжено с трудностями. Данная стратегия неоправданна. Производители с высокими затратами не выдерживают конкуренции. Некоторые производители переходят к созданию новых продуктов и сталкиваются с необходимостью реализации свободных мощностей. Для оставшихся на рынке производителей важно сохранить свою долю рынка. Это позволит им вести ценовую конкуренцию. Актуальной становится задача удлинения стадии «зрелости» . На этой стадии появляется некая общая «рыночная» цена, к которой в большей или меньшей степени тяготеют производители.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/17735847_151613720.pdf-img/17735847_151613720.pdf-19.jpg" alt="> Falling stage. At this stage, prices for goods are minimal, but even"> Стадия падения. На данной стадии цены на товары минимальны, но даже в этих условиях потребительский спрос снижается. В результате снижения спроса на товар производственные мощности производителя оказываются недозагруженными. Это приводит производителя в условиях отсутствия перспективы увеличения сбыта этого товара к необходимости снятия его с производства. Фирма должна постоянно отслеживать рыночную конъюнктуру. Ценообразование на каждой стадии товара должно быть обоснованным, последовательным. Важно, чтобы стратегия ценообразования соответствовала общей экономической стратегии фирмы.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/17735847_151613720.pdf-img/17735847_151613720.pdf-20.jpg" alt=">7. Principles used in developing pricing policy ü attention should be paid first of all on"> 7. Принципы, применяемые при разработке ценовой политики ü внимание следует обратить прежде всего на те рынки и сегменты, которые являются стратегически важными для предприятия; ценовую политику нужно сориентировать на достижение главной экономической цели предприятия - получение прибыли; ü любая цена не может быть неизменной, потому что она оптимальна только для определенных условий и определенного периода времени, при изменении условий цена должна изменяться; ü оптимальной ценой является та, что обеспечивает уверенность потребителя в выгодности покупки товара; ü все, что выше нулевой цены, приносит прибыль.!}

Price– the most important component of the marketing mix. It is prices that determine the structure of production and have a decisive impact on the movement of material flows, the distribution of the commodity mass, and the level of well-being of the population.

Professor of the Financial Academy under the Government of the Russian Federation E.I. Punin notes: “For independent commodity producers operating in the market, regardless of their form of ownership, the question of prices is a matter of life and death.”

Making marketing decisions in the field of setting prices for goods is a rather complex task for an enterprise, which is due to the special role of price as a means of making a profit, as well as its specific functions in the marketing mix. Pricing policy is closely related to the product, distribution and communication policies of the enterprise and is the final stage in the development of the marketing mix.

“Only marketing can set a price for a product that is high enough for the manufacturer and low enough for the consumer,” says the second commandment of marketing.

When setting prices, enterprise management must pay special attention to the following relationships:

? “price – product” – the price reflects the useful properties of goods for consumers;

? “price - distribution” - the organization of sales affects the price of the goods sold;

At the corporate level, price is the primary driver of long-term profitability, determining how price or non-price competition is conducted:

– price competition leads to setting prices below the existing market level and is associated with achieving advantages in minimizing costs;

– non-price competition allows prices to be set at the level of existing market prices and even above them and is focused on a policy of differentiation.

In a market economy main price functions are:

Accounting;

Stimulating;

Distribution;

Balancing supply and demand;

Rational placement of production.

The essence of pricing policy in marketing– setting such prices for the enterprise’s goods and varying them depending on the market position in order to capture a certain market share, obtain the planned amount of profit, etc.

The goals of an enterprise's pricing policy can be:

Long-term or short-term profit maximization;

Economic growth;

Market stabilization;

Reducing consumer sensitivity to prices;

Maintaining leadership in prices;

Preventing the threat of potential competition;

Maintaining trade loyalty;

Improving the image of the enterprise and its products;

Increasing buyer interest;

Strengthening the market position of the assortment;

Capturing dominant positions in the market.

Complex tasks that marketers solve when developing and implementing pricing policies are presented in Fig. 4.1.

Rice. 4.1. Objectives of pricing policy in marketing

To operate successfully in the market, it is very important to correctly take into account the factors influencing the price level. Marketers of foreign companies usually arrange them in ranked order.

1. Production costs.

2. Prices of competitors exporting to a given country.

3. Prices of local competing companies.

5. Transport costs.

6. Extra charges and discounts in favor of the intermediary.

7. Import duties and other charges.

Table 4.1

Factors influencing pricing in marketing

The methodology for developing pricing policy in marketing involves five stages (Table 4.2).

Table 4.2

Stages of developing a pricing policy

*See fig. 4.4.

The marketing system uses different types of prices. Some of them are presented in table. 4.3.

Table 4.3

Types of prices used when developing a pricing strategy

Data from the contract of the enterprise itself or other companies for similar goods;

Offers from foreign companies for the supply of similar goods (usually their prices are inflated);

Reference prices;

The difference in the competitiveness of goods. Taking it into account, amendments are made to the base price, for example, for differences in the configuration of the compared goods, for differences in basic technical and economic indicators, in commercial or other terms of the transaction (terms, delivery conditions, payment terms, transaction volume, etc. ).

It is necessary to take into account the international practice of changing the price (P) of equipment depending on its power (performance) - P:

Where n– an exponent that takes into account the dependence of price on the power (performance) of equipment.

When calculating the level of competitiveness, it is recommended to calculate the price of a product using the formula:

where Ts1, Ts0 are the selling prices of the analyzed and basic goods;

It.p., Ie.p. – parametric indicators on the technical characteristics and competitiveness of the analyzed product without taking into account sales prices;

IN– market share of the basic product (by value);

F– coefficient of equity participation of a single indicator of the sales price of a product;

? - an indicator of the relationship between supply and demand for a product, or an indicator of the prestige of the enterprise producing the product.

Calculations using the latter formula allow us to obtain a selling price that reflects the level of consumption prices and the overall competitiveness of the product in question.

Depending on the specific market situation, pricing can be:

Differentiated;

Competitive;

Assorted;

Geographical;

Stimulating.

At differentiated pricing differentiate:

–> spatial – the price is set depending on the location of buyers in different territories;

–> temporary – the price is set depending on the time of day, days of the week or time of year;

–> personalized – the price is set depending on the group of consumers (for goods for young people, the elderly, professionals, etc.);

–> quantitative – the price is set depending on the volume of the sold batch of goods.

The specific expression of differentiated pricing is standard and variable, uniform and flexible, discriminatory, fixed and sliding prices, the characteristics of which are given in Table. 4.3.

Competitive pricing aimed at maintaining price leadership in the market. The following methods are used:

? “price wars” – are used mainly in the market of monopolized competition. If prices are set above competitors' prices, the product attracts a small number of buyers;

? "skimming";

? "penetration";

? “learning curve” is a compromise between the “skimming” and “penetration” prices. A rapid transition from high prices to lower ones is expected to attract more buyers and neutralize the actions of competitors.

Assortment pricing is based not so much on the economic, but on the psychological perception of price by the buyer. This installs:

–> price lines – a range of prices within one product range, where each product reflects a certain level of quality;

–> “above par” price – a fairly low price for the basic product and a wide range of additional products to it;

–> price “with bait” - the price of a basic product, accessible to the mass buyer, and increased prices for a wide range of additional products to it;

–> prices for related products;

–> price for a set – a single price for a set of products;

–> prices for by-products;

–> psychological prices.

Between individual products within the range Various connections can develop:

–> interchangeability;

–> interdependence.

Changing the relationship between goods is made using the method cross elasticity, allowing to assess the switching of demand from one product to another.

Geographic pricing takes into account the features of the purchase and sale process from producers to consumers. It is used primarily in the formation of export prices. In Russian practice, for example, the following prices are widely used:

–> “ex-works” (EXW) – the seller places the goods at the disposal of the buyer on his territory, and the buyer bears all further risks and expenses;

–> “free on board” (FOB) – the seller’s responsibility ends when the goods are loaded on board (ship, plane, car);

–> “free along the side of the ship” (FAS) – the seller delivers the goods to the pier and bears all costs until loading;

–> “price, insurance, freight” (CIF) – the seller pays transport costs and insures the goods to the port of destination.

Incentive pricing based on the use of various types of discounts and offsets presented in table. 4.5.

Characteristics of methods for setting prices in marketing are given in Table. 4.4.

Table 4.4

Methods for setting prices in marketing

Price adjustments are often taken into account when calculating the final selling price. The simplest dependence that is used in this case:

where %srb is the average bank interest rate for lending operations (for a given country and for a given period of time);

i– number of parts of the advance or installment payment;

ri– the amount of the corresponding payment, %;

ti– the period between making an advance payment and receiving the order (or between receiving the order and the time of payment of the installment fee).

When calculating the price of a product it is widely used discount from price– reduction in the initial price of goods and services.

In marketing, various types of discounts are used, presented in table. 4.5.

Table 4.5

Types of price discounts in marketing

The methods presented in table. 4.4, allow you to calculate prices for goods. The price calculation algorithm is shown in Fig. 4.2.

Rice. 4.3. Price calculation algorithm

The nature of pricing strategies, the technology of their development and implementation methods are influenced by many factors, including:

The market potential of the enterprise and its ability to influence the market;

Market position of the enterprise and the level of its competitiveness;

Level of competition in the market;

The desire of the enterprise management for its intensive growth;

Changing the production profile and transition to the production of new products;

Transition to new forms and methods of work in the market.

Marketing practice uses various types of pricing strategies, which can be grouped into three groups.

1. Cost-oriented.

The total cost per unit of goods is calculated. The necessary data can be obtained from production accounting data. Agreed percentages are taken into account.

Advantages of the strategy: costs are easy to determine, since the method of calculating them is well known and convenient. However, deciding on overhead costs is quite subjective, and the demand factor is not taken into account.

In practice, when calculating prices, the break-even principle of production is often used. When calculating the possibility of achieving break-even when selling a certain volume of products at a given price, use the break-even formula:

where C – price;

K – quantity of goods;

Ipost – fixed costs;

Iper – variable costs.

2. Demand oriented.

An enterprise may have a general idea of ​​the shape of the demand curve, since the latter is subject to constant fluctuations under the influence of competition, the market, the emergence of analogue products, the external environment, etc.

The enterprise must study the demand for such products using direct interviews, experiments, and statistical conclusions.

Quantitative measurement price sensitivity carried out using indicators:

Elasticity of demand;

? "perceived value".

Elasticity of demand depending on price - a percentage change in the sales volume of a product as a result of a change in its price by 1% (issues of elasticity are discussed in paragraph 3.2.). Demand is price elastic if it changes in the opposite direction compared to price.

If the market is saturated with a large number of goods and services that can satisfy the same needs, the price elasticity of demand is greater than one. In this case, price reduction becomes an effective tool for expanding the sales market and increasing sales revenue.

If the number of purchasing options is limited or demand exceeds supply, a situation of inelastic demand arises: prices may be higher. The important thing is that the more urgent the need, the less the price elasticity of demand (medicines, essential products, etc.).

Measuring the elasticity of demand allows you to determine in which direction prices need to be influenced to ensure an increase in sales.

The elasticity of demand depends on the price and consumer expenses, which are interrelated (Table 4.6).

Table 4.6

Dependence of price elasticity of demand on consumer expenses

Measurement perceived value product allows you to predict the development of demand by assessing the buyer’s perception not only of price, but also of other factors.

Any consumer is price sensitive, but this sensitivity can vary significantly depending on the importance ascribed to the product. The literature identifies 9 causal factors that determine consumer sensitivity to the price of individual goods:

Unique value effect - buyers are not so sensitive to price if the product has unique properties;

The effect of lack of awareness of analogues - buyers are less sensitive to price if they do not know about the existence of analogues;

Difficulty of comparison effect - buyers are less price sensitive if products are difficult to compare;

Total cost effect – buyers are less price sensitive if the price of the product is only a small proportion of their expenses;

The final benefit effect - buyers are less sensitive to price, the smaller the share of the price of the product in the total costs of obtaining the final result;

Cost sharing effect – buyers are less sensitive to price if they share it with others;

Sunk investment effect - buyers are less sensitive to price if it is used in conjunction with a previously purchased main product that represents a sunk cost;

The effect of the connection between price and quality - buyers are not so sensitive to price if the product evokes strong associations with quality, prestige, and exclusivity;

Inventory effect – buyers are less price sensitive if they do not have the opportunity to stock up on an item.

These price sensitivity factors apply to both product category purchasing decisions and brand choice.

In the market for industrial and technical products customer needs are more specific and the functions performed by the product are more defined. With low price sensitivity:

The price of the goods sold is only a small part of the final product price for the client or in his purchasing budget;

Losses from using a low-quality product are higher than the price;

Using the product can lead to significant savings;

The client implements a strategy of increased quality by purchasing this product;

The client needs a specific product, manufactured, for example, to a special order;

The client has a good financial position;

The client is poorly informed about market conditions;

The motivation for purchasing, as a rule, does not include cost minimization.

3. Focused on competition (closed bidding).

Three mutually exclusive strategies can be used:

Adjustments to market price;

Consistent price reduction;

Consistent overpricing.

A type of competitive pricing is tender pricing– proposals (tenders) of suppliers invited to participate in tenders for the supply of certain types of goods are submitted by a certain date in a sealed envelope, which is opened publicly. The tender with the lowest price is accepted. Offers are based on the company’s own costs in producing the goods and analysis of possible offers from competitors.

Alternative pricing strategies are presented in Table. 4.7.

The choice of an alternative pricing strategy depends on the pricing goals (Fig. 4.3), the quality of the product (Table 4.8) and the product life cycle (Table 4.9).

Rice. 4.3. Pricing goals when developing a pricing strategy

Table 4.8

Strategies for setting prices depending on product quality

Table 4.7

Alternative options for an enterprise's pricing strategy

* Marketing multiplier– an indicator that summarizes the long-term effect of price changes over a certain period and gives a reduced assessment of the variety of price influences.

Strategically optimal price ( R wholesale), which allows you to optimize long-term profit, can be determined by the formula:

Where E n – short-term price elasticity;

C – marginal costs;

M– marketing multiplier.

1. A firm announces that the price of its electronic typewriter on January 1, 1994 is $850. This price includes delivery to the buyer, installation and two rolls of premium quality tape. The company guarantees the absence of manufacturing defects for 90 days.

What might be the long-term and immediate consequences of this announcement for the firm?

2. Managers of a store selling frozen seafood note a drop in demand for the product in the summer. What could be causing this? Develop proposals for improving the sales organization.

3. In the Russian computer market, competition has become very intense, while the solvency of the population remains limited. What can retailers do to improve performance in the price-advertising chain in this situation?

4. The company sells a children's doll at a fairly high price. Offer your option for increasing product sales.

5. In conditions of economic stagnation in a number of countries, small manufacturers of household appliances are offering trade discounts, and car manufacturers are offering low-interest loans. What are the advantages and disadvantages of these price reduction methods?