The Seven Years' War - briefly. Seven Years' War (1756–1763) Map of the Seven Years' War 1756 1762

The Seven Years' War is the most spectacular and large-scale military conflict of the 18th century. It began in 1756 and lasted, oddly enough, 7 years, ending in 1763. Interesting fact is that the countries involved in the conflict were located on all continents known at that time. Australia and Antarctica have not yet been explored.

Classmates

The main participants of the Seven Years' War

Quite a few states took part in the Seven Years' War, but it is worth highlighting only the main ones that carried out the most significant actions:

Habsburg Austria;
Prussia;
France;
United Kingdom;
Russian Empire.

Causes of conflicts

The first preconditions for war appeared in connection with the unresolved geopolitical problems of Europe. This happened after the War of the Austrian Succession in 1740 - 1748.

The main reasons for the start of the Seven Years' War were:

Conflicts between the French kingdom and Great Britain regarding overseas possessions. That is, states could not divide the colonies.
Austria-Hungary and Germany were in conflict over Silesian territories.

Formation of coalitions

After the War of the Austrian Succession and Europe was divided into two groups of states contradicting each other:

Habsburg Coalition, which included:
- Austria-Hungary;
- United Kingdom;
- Netherlands;
- Russia.
Anti-Habsburg coalition, which included:
- Germany;
- France;
- Saxony.

Such unfriendly relations persisted for quite some time, until the mid-1750s. There were only a few changes between the coalitions: representatives of the Netherlands chose to remain neutral regarding the coalitions, and Saxony expressed an open reluctance to conduct military action, however, it maintained an alliance with Russia and Austria.

In 1756, the process of the so-called “diplomatic coup” was launched. It was marked the following events:

Throughout January, negotiations took place between Germany and England, which ended with the joint signing of a subsidiary agreement. Distinctive feature These negotiations were that they took place at a strictly secret level and were not reported on the world stage. The terms of this agreement implied that the military forces of the Kingdom of Prussia had to defend the possessions of Great Britain, in return they received a banal monetary payment.

State, which forced us to agree to this agreement English king, this is France. She was the most obvious and dangerous enemy for Britain.

After the terms of the subsidiary agreement were announced to the whole world, further political changes took place. Two new political groups emerged, whose interests opposed each other:

Austria-Hungary, Russia, French Kingdom;
Great Britain, Kingdom of Prussia.

These were the obvious and main participants in the Seven Years' War. Of course, many other countries took part in the war, which will be mentioned later, however, these are the main participants.

Events of the Seven Years' War

The main personality of the war was Frederick II the Great of Prussia. It was he who started the fighting. In August 1756, Prussian troops invaded the territory of Saxony and began aggressive actions. This marked the beginning of the great war.

Map of the Seven Years' War: fighting took place on the following continents:

Europe;
North America;
India.

North America

In January 1755, the English king gave the order to begin a military policy towards France. The first clash is considered to be the events that took place in the Canadian region in North America, when British troops tried to intercept a convoy of the French kingdom. However, the attempt was unsuccessful and the troops collapsed.

As soon as representatives France learned of this incident, all diplomatic relations between the French and English kings were severed and the war officially began.

Key events on this continent occurred in 1759 at the Battle of Quebec. This battle ended with the capture of the French outpost, which was located in Canada. At the same time, Martinique was captured. It is the main center of trade in the West Indies, owned by the French.

Actions in Europe

Oddly enough, the main battles took place in Europe. It is worth noting that most of the clashes took place against the Prussian king Frederick II. It is noteworthy that representatives of Great Britain contributed their troops weakest to the Seven Years' War. The main investments were in the form of cash.

The rulers of the countries fighting against Prussia made an unforgivable mistake, which led to complications of the war. The fact is that the German state gave way already at the beginning of the battles, however, for some reasons the Allied victory did not happen:

A full-fledged union was not formed between the rulers of Austria, France and Russia, which led to a lack of coherence in actions.
The commanders-in-chief of Russia did not have the opportunity to take proactive actions, since they were directly dependent on the conference at the Imperial Court.

Key battles fought in Europe:

Battle of Rosbach (November 1757);
under Zorndorf (1758);
under Kunersdorf (August 1759);
capture of Berlin in October 1760;
Battle of Freiberg in October 1762.

It is quite remarkable that during the Seven Years' War, Prussia had an excellent opportunity to show its military power, because they were able to confront the three largest states of the continent at once. These included Russia, Austria-Hungary and France.

Battles in Asia and their results

The surprising fact is that the war has affected even this continent. It all started here in 1757, when confrontations broke out between Bengal and England. Initially, upon learning of the outbreak of hostilities in Europe, England announced maintaining its neutrality, however, they very quickly began to attack the French.

Since the position of the French kingdom in Asia was fragile, it could not present a proper confrontation and suffered a serious defeat in Indian territory.

Results of the Seven Years' War

So, over the course of seven years, serious hostilities broke out between many countries on the territory of three known continents. Final years The Seven Years' War is considered to be:

February 10, 1762 - Treaty of Paris between England and France.
On February 15, 1763, exactly one year after the Treaty of Paris, representatives of Austria and Prussia were ready for negotiations. A peace treaty was concluded between these states in Hubertusburg.

The war is finally over, bringing joy to the whole world. People needed to recover from such disastrous hostilities.

Key results wars look like this:

This world experience shows all future generations that war is always terrible and bad. It takes the lives of many people, and in the end gives nothing in return. Nowadays it is very important understand this and be able to learn from the mistakes of the past.

Seven Years' War 1756-1763 arose due to a series of conflicts between the main European powers. The fact is that at the time in question, two countries were fighting for the right to act as a leader in the international arena. France and England entered into a protracted period of conflict, which made an armed clash between them inevitable. At this time, both countries embarked on the path of colonial conquest, and friction constantly arose between them due to the division of territories and spheres of influence. The main arena of confrontation was the North American and Indian territories. In these lands, both opposing sides constantly clashed in determining boundaries and redistributing areas. It was these contradictions that became the cause of the military conflict.

Prerequisites for the collision

Seven Years' War 1756-1763 was also the result of the strengthening of the Prussian state. Frederick II created a very combat-ready army by those standards, thanks to which he made a number of seizures, due to which he rounded off the borders of his country. This expansion came at the expense of Austria, from which he took the Silesian lands. Silesia was one of the richest regions of this state, and this loss was a significant loss for the state. It is not surprising, therefore, that Empress Maria Theresa was interested in returning lost lands. Under these conditions, the Prussian ruler sought support from England, which, in turn, sought to secure its European possessions (Hannover), and was also interested in support in retaining these lands for itself.

Seven Years' War 1756-1763 became a consequence of the contradictions between England and France over the division of colonial lands, as mentioned above. Our country also had reasons to participate in armed confrontation. The fact is that the claims of the Prussian state threatened spheres of influence on the Polish and Baltic borders. In addition, Russia since the 1740s. connected with Austria by a system of treaties. On this basis there was a rapprochement between our country and France, and thus the anti-Prussian coalition took shape.

Beginning of the confrontation

Causes of the Seven Years' War of 1756-1763 determined its broad scope. The leading European powers were drawn into the hostilities. In addition, several fronts of combat operations were formed: continental, North American, Indian and others. This military confrontation between the blocs changed the balance of power in Western Europe and changed her geo political map.

Seven Years' War 1756-1763 began with the attack of the Prussian king on Saxony. This ruler’s calculation was as follows: he planned to create a springboard here for an attack on the enemy. In addition, he wanted to use Austria as a prosperous region to replenish his army, and also intended to take advantage of its economic and material resources. He repelled the Saxon attack and occupied these lands. After this victory, the Prussian king inflicted a series of blows on the Austrians, he even captured the city of Prague for some time, but subsequently Austrian army defeated him near the city of Kolin. However, the Prussian army was victorious at Leuthen, thus restoring the original balance of forces.

Continuation of hostilities

The entry of France into the war greatly complicated the position of the Prussian king, but nevertheless he managed to inflict a serious blow on his new enemy at Rosbach. Then our country began hostilities. The Russian army was considered one of the strongest in Europe, but it was unable to realize its advantages largely due to the fact that the commanders of the Seven Years' War of 1756-1763. failed to take full advantage of its capabilities. In the very first major battle, the commander of the troops, Apraksin, despite the victory over the enemy, unexpectedly gave the order to retreat. The next battle was led by the Englishman Fermor. Under his leadership, Russian troops took part in one of the bloodiest battles during the military campaign of the second year of the war. This battle did not bring decisive success to either side. one of his contemporaries called it the strangest battle.

Victories of Russian weapons

The Seven Years' War of 1756-1763, which is usually briefly discussed in schools in connection with Russia's participation in it, entered its decisive phase of combat operations in the third year of its development. This was largely due to the victory won by the Russian army under the leadership of the new military leader Saltykov. He was very smart, and also popular among the soldiers. It was under his leadership that the Russian army won its famous victory at Kunersdorf. Then it was completely defeated, and the king faced a real threat of seizing the capital of his state. However, instead, the allied army withdrew, as the countries of the anti-Prussian coalition began to accuse each other of violating their obligations.

Further course of action

However, the position of Frederick II was extremely difficult. He turned to England for help, asking her to act as a mediator in holding a peace congress. Seven Years' War 1756-1763 which is usually briefly reported in connection with the above battle, nevertheless continued due to the position of Russia and Austria, who intended to inflict a decisive and final blow on their enemy. The Prussian king inflicted damage on the Austrians, but still the forces were unequal. His army lost its combat effectiveness, which affected the conduct of military operations. In 1760, Russian and Austrian troops occupied the capital of his state. However, they were soon forced to leave her upon learning of the king's approach. In the same year, the last major battle of the war took place, in which the Prussian king nevertheless emerged victorious. But he was already exhausted: in one battle he lost almost half of his army. In addition, his opponents achieved some successes on secondary fronts.

Final stage

Causes of the Seven Years' War of 1756-1763 affected the characteristics of the conduct of hostilities. In fact, the main battles in Europe took place between Prussia and Austria with the active participation of our country. However, in connection with the death of the Russian Empress, there was a sharp change in foreign policy under her successor. The new emperor returned to the Prussian king all the lands occupied by Russian troops, signed a peace and alliance treaty with him, and even sent his military corps to help him. This unexpected change literally saved Prussia from final defeat.

However, Catherine II, who ascended the throne, canceled this agreement, but nevertheless, not yet feeling sufficiently confident in the capital, did not resume hostilities. So, by this time the seven-year war of 1756-1763 was almost over. Russia took an active part in it, but did not make any territorial acquisitions. The Prussian king, taking advantage of this respite, inflicted several more serious blows on the Austrians, but it became quite obvious that the resources of his country would not support the continuation of bloody battles.

North American Front in Confrontation

The fighting was not limited to the European mainland. A fierce struggle unfolded in North America, where the British clashed with the French over spheres of influence. For five years, there was a struggle between both sides for the capture of ports, cities and fortresses. The Seven Years' War of 1756-1763, which is usually discussed briefly only in relation to the clash of powers on the European continent, thus also covered overseas lands. The most fierce confrontation took place over Quebec. As a result, France was defeated and lost Canada.

Actions in India

The struggle of these powers also unfolded in India, where the British consistently ousted the French from their positions. It is characteristic that the struggle took place both over land and over sea. English troops finally ousted the French from their positions in 1760. This victory turned England into a major colonial power and finally brought India under its control.

Consequences

The Seven Years' War of 1756-1763, the results of which literally changed the map of Europe and the balance of power between the leading powers, became perhaps the largest military-political clash on the continent in the mid-18th century. The results of this serious confrontation led to the redistribution of colonial territories and spheres of influence between states. The main consequence of the struggle was the transformation of England into the largest on the mainland. This country has supplanted the position of its main opponent France and has taken a leading position in the expansion of spheres of influence.

Terms of agreements

Results of the Seven Years' War of 1756-1763. affected, first of all, the redistribution of territories. In the year the fighting ended, a treaty was signed according to which France lost Canada, ceding this area to its rival, which also made a number of other major territorial acquisitions. France's position after this agreement was greatly shaken. However, internal reasons also contributed a lot to this: a serious crisis was brewing in the state itself, which led after several decades to revolution.

In the same year, Prussia signed an agreement with Austria, according to which Silesia and some other lands remained with it. Because of these disputed territories, the two powers were in hostile relations for quite some time. But Frederick II, almost immediately after the end of the war, set a course for rapprochement with our country. The Seven Years' War of 1756-1763, the causes of which determined the development of European powers for a whole century to come, redistributed allied relations and obligations in a new way. For Russia, the main result was that it acquired extensive experience in combat operations in confrontation with the leading powers of the continent. It was from the participants in the war that the commanders of Catherine’s time emerged, who ensured a number of brilliant victories for our country. However, the empire did not make any territorial acquisitions. The new ruler did not declare war on the Prussian king, although she terminated the alliance agreement with him signed by her husband.

Position of the parties

Austria lost the largest number of soldiers in this war. The losses of its main enemy were half as large. There is a point of view that more than two million people died as a result of hostilities. In order to participate in the war, Great Britain intensified the exploitation of its North American colonies. In particular, taxes were raised and all sorts of obstacles were created to the development of industry on the continent, which, in turn, caused a violent outburst of discontent among the colonists, who eventually took up arms, starting the War of Independence. Many historians are looking for an answer to the question of what allowed Prussia to ultimately win, despite the fact that several times its ruler found himself in an extremely difficult situation, which more than once threatened him with final defeat. A number of experts highlight the following reasons: disagreement between the allies, the death of the Russian Empress and unexpected turn foreign policy course. However, the most important is, of course, the first reason. At critical and decisive moments, the allies could not find a common language, which led to disagreement between them, which only benefited the Prussian ruler.

For Prussia itself, victory was extremely important for both domestic and foreign policy development. After the end of the war, it became one of the leading powers in Europe. This accelerated the process of uniting the fragmented German lands into a single state whole, and precisely under the leadership of this country. Thus, this state became the basis of a new European state - Germany. Thus, we can say that the war had international significance, since its results and results affected not only the position of European countries, but also the position of colonies on other continents.

After the Thirty Years' War, the nature of confrontations between countries in the world began to change. Local conflicts gave way to wars of an international nature. For example, this was the Seven Years' War, which began in Europe in 1756. It was an attempt by the Prussian king Frederick II to extend his influence over most of the continent. Prussia’s aspirations were supported by England, and such a powerful “tandem” was opposed by a coalition of four states. These were Austria, Saxony, Sweden, France, supported by Russia.

The war lasted until 1763, ending with the signing of a series of peace treaties that influenced the political development of the countries.

Reason and reasons for the war

The official reason for the war was the dissatisfaction of many countries with the results of the redistribution of the “Austrian heritage”. This process lasted eight years, from 1740 to 1748, leaving European states dissatisfied with the new territorial acquisitions. The political and economic situation of that time had a significant influence on the formation of contradictions between England and France, Austria and Prussia. So by the end of the 1750s. Two groups of reasons formed that provoked the beginning of the Seven Years' War:

England and France could not divide their colonial possessions among themselves. Countries constantly competed with each other on this issue, and not only at the political level. There were also armed clashes that claimed the lives of the population in the colonies and soldiers of both armies.
Austria and Prussia argued over Silesia, which was Austria's most developed industrial region, taken from it as a result of the conflict of 1740-1748.

Participants in the confrontation

Prussia, which fueled the fire of war, concluded a coalition agreement with England. This group was opposed by Austria, France, Saxony, Sweden and Russia, which provided significant support to the coalition. Holland, which took part in the War of the Austrian Succession, took neutrality.

Main fronts of the war

Historians identify three directions in which the enemy’s military actions took place. Firstly, this is the Asian front, where events unfolded in India. Secondly, this is the North American front, where the interests of France and England collided. Thirdly, the European front, on which many military battles took place.

Start of hostilities

Frederick II had been preparing for war for several years. First of all, he increased the number of his own troops and carried out a complete reorganization. As a result, the king received a modern and combat-ready army for that time, whose soldiers made a number of successful conquests. In particular, Silesia was taken away from Austria, which provoked a conflict between the participants of the two coalitions. The ruler of Austria, Maria Theresa, wanted to return the region, so she turned to France, Sweden and Russia for help. The Prussian army could not withstand such a united army, which became the reason for the search for allies. Only England was able to resist both Russia and France at the same time. For its “services” the British government wanted to secure possessions on the mainland.

Prussia was the first to begin hostilities, attacking Saxony, which was strategically important for Frederick the Second:

A springboard for further advance into Austria.
Providing constant supplies of food and water for the Prussian army.
Using the material and economic potential of Saxony to the benefit of Prussia.

Austria tried to repel the attack of the Prussian army, but everything was unsuccessful. No one could stand against Frederick's soldiers. Maria Theresa's army turned out to be unable to hold back Prussia's attacks, so it kept losing in local skirmishes.

Within a short time, Frederick II managed to capture Moravia and Bohemia, briefly entering Prague. The Austrian army began to fight back only in the summer of 1757, when the Austrian military commander Daun, using his entire military reserve, ordered constant shelling of the Prussian army. The consequence of such actions was the surrender of the troops of Frederick the Second and his gradual retreat to the city of Nimburg. In order to preserve the remnants of his army, the king ordered the obligation of Prague to be removed and to return to the border of his own state.

European front 1758-1763: main events and battles

An allied army of almost 300 thousand people opposed the army of the Prussian king. Therefore, Frederick II decided to divide the coalition that fought against her. First, the French, who were in the principalities neighboring Austria, were defeated. This allowed Prussia to invade Silesia again.

Strategically, Frederick II was several steps ahead of his enemies. He managed to bring chaos into the ranks of the army of the French, Lorraine and Austrians with deceptive attacks. Thanks to a well-planned operation, Silesia came under Prussian rule in the second.

In the summer of 1757, Russian troops began to actively take part in the war, trying to capture the eastern regions of the Prussian state through Lithuania. By August of the same year, it became clear that Frederick the Second would lose the battle for Königsberg and East Prussia. But Russian general Apraksin refused to continue military operations, citing the fact that the army was at a disadvantage. As a result of a successful company, Russian army retained only the port of Memel, where the fleet base was located Russian Empire for the entire period of the war.

During 1758-1763 Many battles took place, the main ones being:

1758 - East Prussia and Königsberg are retaken from the Russians, the decisive battle took place near the village of Zorndorf.
The battle near the village of Kunersdorf, where a major battle between the Prussian army and the united Russian-Astrian army took place. After the battle, only three thousand soldiers remained from the 48 thousand army of Frederick the Second, with whom the king was forced to retreat across the Oder River. Another part of the Prussian military personnel were scattered across neighboring settlements. It took the king and his commanders several days to get them back into action. The allies did not pursue the army of Frederick II, since the casualties were tens of thousands, many soldiers were wounded and went missing. After the Battle of Kunersdorf, Russian troops redeployed to Silesia, which helped the Austrians drive out the Prussian army.
In 1760-1761 There were practically no military operations; the nature of the war can be described as inactive. Even the fact that Russian troops temporarily occupied Berlin in 1760, but then surrendered it without a fight, did not intensify military operations. The city was returned back to Prussia because it was of strategic importance.
In 1762, Peter the Third ascended to the Russian throne and replaced Elizaveta Petrovna. This radically affected the further course of the war. The Russian emperor worshiped the military genius of Frederick the Second, so he signed a peace treaty with him. At this time, England destroyed the French fleet, taking it out of the war. Peter the Third was killed in July 1762 on the orders of his wife, after which Russia returned to the war again, but did not continue it. Catherine the Second did not want to allow Austria to strengthen in Central Europe.
February 1763 The Austro-Prussian peace treaty was signed.

North American and Asian fronts

In North America, confrontations took place between England and France, which could not divide the spheres of influence in Canada. The French did not want to lose their possessions in this part of the North American continent, so they strained relations with the British in every possible way. Numerous Indian tribes who tried to survive in the undeclared war were also drawn into the confrontation.

The battle that finally put everything in its place took place in 1759 near Quebec. After this, the French finally lost their colonies in North America.

A clash of interests between the two countries also occurred in Asia, where Bengal rebelled against the British. This happened in 1757, at the very beginning of the Seven Years' War. France, to which Bengal was subject, declared neutrality. But this did not stop the British; they began to attack French outposts more and more often.

The war on several fronts and the lack of a strong army in Asia led to the fact that the government of this country was unable to adequately organize the defense of its Asian possessions. The British hastened to take advantage of this by landing their troops on the island of Martinique. It was the center of French trade in the West Indies, and as a result of the Seven Years' War, Martinique was ceded to Britain.

The results of the confrontation between England and France were enshrined in a peace treaty, which was signed in early February 1762 in Paris.

Results of the war

In fact, the war stopped in 1760, but local confrontations continued for almost three more years. Peace treaties between the countries were signed in 1762 and 1763, on their basis the system of relations in Europe was then created after the Seven Years' War. The results of this conflict changed, once again, changed the political map of Europe, slightly adjusting the borders and reformatting the balance of power in the second half of the 18th century. in international relations.

The main consequences of the war include:

The redistribution of colonial possessions in Europe, which caused a redistribution of spheres of influence between England and France.
England became the largest colonial empire in Europe, thanks to the displacement of France from Northern Europe and Europe.
France in Europe lost many territories, which caused a weakening of the state's position in Europe.
In France, during the Seven Years' War, the prerequisites for the start of the revolution gradually took shape, which began in 1848.
Prussia formalized its claims to Austria in the form of a peace treaty, under the terms of which Silesia, like neighboring territories, came under the rule of Frederick the Second.
Territorial contradictions in Central Europe have intensified.
Russia has gained invaluable experience in conducting military operations in Europe against the leading states of the continent.
A galaxy of outstanding commanders was formed in Europe, who then began to bring victories to their states.
Russia did not receive any territorial gains, but its position in Europe became stronger and stronger.
A large number of people died. According to average estimates, about two million military personnel could have died in the Seven Years' War.
In the British colonies in North America, taxes were increased several times to pay for military expenses. This caused resistance from the colonists, who in Canada and the North American states tried to develop industry, build roads, and invest money in the economy of the colonies. As a result, the preconditions began to take shape for the struggle against British rule on the continent.
The Asian colonies of France became the property of the British monarchy.

The victory of Prussia in the Seven Years' War could not have been predicted by the talented commanders of that time. Yes, Frederick II was a brilliant strategist and tactician, but his army was on the verge of complete defeat many times. Historians believe that a number of factors prevented the final defeat of the Prussian army:

The allied coalition created against Prussia was not effective. Each country defended its own interests, which prevented it from uniting at the right moment and acting as a single force against the enemy.
Strong Prussia was a beneficial ally for Russia, England, and France, so the states agreed to the seizure of Silesia and Austria.

Thanks to this, the consequences of the Seven Years' War had a serious impact on the situation in Europe. A strong Prussian state arose in the central part of the continent, with centralized power. Thus, Frederick the Second managed to overcome the separatism of individual principalities, get rid of fragmentation within the country, focusing on the unity of the German lands. Prussia subsequently became the central core of the formation of a state such as Germany.

In the 50s Prussia becomes Russia's main enemy. The reason for this is the aggressive policy of its king, aimed at the east of Europe.

The Seven Years' War began in 1756 . The conference at the highest court, which under Empress Elizabeth played the role of the Secret, or Military, Council, set the task - “by weakening the King of Prussia, make him fearless and carefree for the local side (for Russia”).

Frederick II in August 1756, without declaring war, attacked Saxony. His army, having defeated the Austrians, captured Dresden and Leipzig. The anti-Prussian coalition is finally taking shape - Austria, France, Russia, Sweden.

In the summer of 1757, the Russian army entered East Prussia. On the way to Königsberg, near the village of Gross-Jägersdorf, the army of Field Marshal S. F. Apraksin met with the army of Field Marshal H. Lewald on August 19 (30), 1757.

The Prussians began the battle. They successively attacked the left flank and center, then the right flank of the Russians. They broke through the center, and a critical situation was created here. The regiments of the division of General Lopukhin, who was killed during the battle, suffered heavy losses and began to retreat. The enemy could break into the rear of the Russian army. But the situation was saved by the four reserve regiments of P. A. Rumyantsev, a young general whose star began to rise in these years. Their swift and sudden attack on the flank of the Prussian infantry led to its panicked flight. The same thing happened in the location of the Russian vanguard and right flank. Fire from cannons and rifles mowed down the ranks of the Prussians. They fled along the entire front, losing more than 3 thousand killed and 5 thousand wounded; Russians - 1.4 thousand killed and more than 5 thousand wounded.

Apraksin won the victory with the help of only part of his army. As a result, the road to Koenigsberg was clear. But the commander took the army to Tilsit, then to Courland and Livonia for winter quarters. The reason for the departure was not only the lack of provisions and mass illnesses among the soldiers, which he wrote to St. Petersburg, but also something else that he kept silent about - the empress fell ill and the accession of Prince Peter Fedorovich, her nephew and supporter of the Prussian king, was expected.

Elizaveta soon recovered, and Apraksin was put on trial. General V.V. Farmer, an Englishman by birth, is appointed commander. He distinguished himself in the wars of the 30s and 40s. with Turkey and Sweden. During the Seven Years' War, his corps took Memel and Tilsit. The general showed himself well with his division in the Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf. Having become the head of the Russian army, in January he occupied Konigsberg, then all of East Prussia. Its residents took an oath to the Russian Empress.

At the beginning of June, Fermor went southwest - to Küstrin, which is eastern Berlin, at the confluence of the Warta River with the Oder. Here, near the village of Zorndorf, a battle took place on August 14 (25). The Russian army numbered 42.5 thousand people, the army of Frederick II - 32.7 thousand. The battle lasted all day and was fierce. Both sides suffered heavy losses. Both the Prussian king and Fermor spoke of their victory, and both withdrew their armies from Zorndorf. The result of the battle was uncertain. The indecisiveness of the Russian commander, his distrust of the soldiers did not allow him to complete the job and win a victory. But the Russian army showed its strength, and Frederick retreated, not daring to fight again with those whom, as he himself admitted, he “could not crush.” Moreover, he feared a disaster, since his army had lost its best soldiers.

Fermor received his resignation on May 8, 1758, but served in the army until the end of the war and showed himself well while commanding corps. He left behind a memory as an efficient, but low-initiative, indecisive commander-in-chief. Being a military leader of a lower rank, showing courage and management, he distinguished himself in a number of battles.

In his place, unexpectedly for many, including himself, General Pyotr Semenovich Saltykov was appointed. A representative of an old family of Moscow boyars, a relative of the empress (her mother was from the Saltykov family), he began serving as a soldier in Peter's guard in 1714. He lived in France for two decades, studying maritime affairs. But, returning to Russia in the early 30s, he served in the guard and at court. Then he takes part in the Polish campaign (1733) and the Russian-Swedish war; later, during the Seven Years' War - in the capture of Koenigsberg, the Battle of Zorndorf. He became commander-in-chief when he was 61 years old - for that time he was already an old man.

Saltykov had an eccentric, peculiar character. He somewhat resembled the one who started military career during these years, he loved the army and soldiers, just like they did him, he was a simple and modest, honest and comical person. He could not stand ceremonies and receptions, splendor and pomp. This “gray-haired, small, simple old man,” as A. T. Bolotov, a famous memoirist and participant in the Seven Years’ War, attests to him, “seemed... like a real chicken”. The capital's politicians laughed at him and recommended that he consult the Farmer and the Austrians in everything. But he, an experienced and decisive general, despite his “simple” kind of made decisions himself, delved into everything. He did not bend his back to the Conference, which constantly interfered in the affairs of the army, believing that it could be controlled from St. Petersburg, thousands of miles from the theater of military operations. His independence and firmness, energy and common sense, caution and hatred of routine, quick intelligence and remarkable composure captivated the soldiers who sincerely loved him.

Having taken command of the army, Saltykov leads it to Frankfurt-on-Oder. On July 12 (23), 1759, he defeats the army of General Wedel at Palzig. Then Frankfurt is captured. Here, near the village of Kunersdorf, on the right bank of the Oder, opposite Frankfurt, on August 1 (12), 1759, a general battle took place. In Saltykov's army there were about 41 thousand Russian soldiers with 200 guns and 18.5 thousand Austrians with 48 guns; in Frederick's army - 48 thousand, 114 heavy guns, regimental artillery. During the fierce battle, success accompanied first one side, then the other. Saltykov skillfully maneuvered the shelves, moving them to the right places and at the right time. The artillery, Russian infantry, Austrian and Russian cavalry performed excellently. At the beginning of the battle, the Prussians pushed back the Russians on the left flank. However, the Prussian infantry attack in the center was repulsed. Here Frederick twice threw his main force into battle - the cavalry of General Seydlitz. But it was destroyed by Russian soldiers. Then the Russians launched a counterattack on the left flank and drove the enemy back. The transition of the entire Allied army to the offensive ended in the complete defeat of Frederick. He himself and the remnants of his army fled in terrible panic from the battlefield. The king was almost captured by the Cossacks. He lost more than 18.5 thousand people, the Russians - more than 13 thousand, the Austrians - about 2 thousand. Berlin was preparing to capitulate, the archives and the king’s family were taken out of it, and he himself, according to rumors, was thinking about suicide.

After brilliant victories, Saltykov received the rank of field marshal. Subsequently, the intrigues of the Austrians and the distrust of the Conference unsettle him. He fell ill and was replaced by the same Fermor.

During the campaign of 1760, the detachment of General Z. G. Chernyshev occupied Berlin on September 28 (October 9). But the lack of coordination between the actions of the Austrian and Russian armies again and greatly hinders the matter. Berlin had to be abandoned, but the fact of its capture made a strong impression on Europe. At the end of the next year, a 16,000-strong corps under the skillful command of Rumyantsev, with the support of a landing force of sailors led by G. A. Spiridov, captured the Kolberg fortress on the Baltic coast. The path to Stettin and Berlin opened. Prussia stood on the brink of destruction.

Salvation for Frederick came from St. Petersburg - she died on December 25, 1761, and her nephew (the son of the Duke of Goshtinsky and Anna, daughter) Peter III Fedorovich, who replaced her on the throne, concluded a truce on March 5 (16), 1762 with the Prussian monarch he adored. And a month and a half later, he concludes a peace treaty with him - Prussia receives all its lands back. Russia's sacrifices in the seven-year war were in vain.

The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) got its name from its length in time. This was the largest conflict of the 18th century. It took place not only in Europe, but also in North America, India, and the Caribbean. At one time, Churchill called it the “First World War.” In history, this conflict is referred to as the third Silesian, Pomeranian, Carnatic, French-Indian, and Recent War.

Reasons

The main reasons for the Seven Years' War were hidden behind the confrontation between world powers over colonies in North America. Military clashes there began two years before the declaration of war. The main rivals were England and France. Colonists from these countries started an armed conflict. Allied Indians also took part in it. Another reason was the strengthening of Prussia in Europe. Many developed countries did not like this.

Other countries joined coalitions for their own benefit:

Austria wanted to return Silesia.
Prussia hoped to capture Saxony.
Sweden sought to reconquer Stettin and a number of other lands.
Russia fought for East Prussia.

Countries united in coalitions. One included England, Prussia, Hanover, the other - France, Austria, Russia, Spain. This was quite unusual, since France and Austria had been fighting each other for hegemony in Europe for a long time.

Opponents

The main states that participated in the Seven Years' War (opponents) and their commanders-in-chief:

Prussia was ruled by Frederick II. He was the emperor and commander-in-chief rolled into one, so he didn't have to answer to anyone.
England - King George II was the king.
Austria - Maria Theresa was at the head of the state, Karl Alexander was appointed commander. But after the unsuccessful Battle of Leuthen, he resigned and command passed to Leopold Joseph.
Russia - Elizaveta Petrovna ruled the country, the commander-in-chief was first Apraksin, he was replaced by Fermor, then Saltykov and Buturlin. They were subordinate to the St. Petersburg Conference. Later Peter the Third became emperor.
France - Louis the Fifteenth was the emperor, commanders replaced each other as a result of intrigues and frequent defeats. Le Tellier was appointed first, then Richelieu, de Bourbon-Condé, Erasmus, Victor-François, de Rohan.

Invasion of Saxony

Officially, the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) began with the Prussian invasion of Saxony. Frederick II entered its territory on August 28, 1756. A couple of days later, Russia declared war on Prussia.

The thirty-three thousand army of Austria came to the aid of Saxony. But she was broken. Saxony had only eighteen thousand soldiers. They could not resist the two hundred thousand Prussian army, so they capitulated. Frederick II forced the Saxons into his army, and in vain. Throughout the war they ran over to the enemy in battalions.

It was important for Frederick the Second to capture these lands in order to transfer the fighting to the enemy’s side. He was also able to use the human and material resources of wealthy Saxony.

Major battles in Europe

During such a long period of the war, many battles were fought. Main battles of the Seven Years' War:

Under Colin - took place on June 18, 1757. The battle lasted six hours. Austria had fifty-four thousand troops, and Prussia had thirty-five thousand. Frederick II was intoxicated by success, but miscalculated his strength and lost.
Under Leuthen - happened on December 5, 1757. Thirty-two thousand soldiers came from Prussia, and Austria had eighty thousand soldiers. Despite this numerical superiority, the army under the command of Prince Charles Alexander lost.
Under Rosbach - took place on November 5, 1757. French troops of forty-three thousand people were unable to invade Prussia, because they were defeated by twenty-two thousand soldiers of Frederick the Second.
Zorndorf - occurred on August 25, 1758. Russian forces (forty-two thousand soldiers) clashed with Frederick the Second (thirty-three thousand). The battle was bloody. Russian troops lost sixteen thousand, and Prussian troops - eleven thousand. The battle ended in nothing.
Kunersdorf - took place on August 12, 1759. Frederick II with thirty-five thousand troops marched against forty-one thousand Russian soldiers under the command of Semenovich. The Prussian army was defeated.
Under Torgai - happened on November 3, 1760. It is considered the last major battle of the war. The forces of Prussia (forty-four thousand) and Austria (fifty-three thousand) collided. The losses of both sides were colossal - sixteen thousand soldiers on each side. Victory was for Frederick the Second.

Having lost a significant part of his army in battles, the Prussian ruler began to protect it from bloody battles. The war continued for another three years, but everything was limited to maneuvers and marches. The main battles of the Seven Years' War were fought only in the first years.

North American Front

Events in North America began back in 1754, when a skirmish occurred at Great Meadows between colonists from England and France. At first the French lost ground, but united with the Indians and were able to win the Battle of Monongahela in 1755. After a series of battles on May 17, 1756, England declared war on Louis the Fifteenth.

The decisive battle took place in 1759 near Quebec. The French outnumbered the British. The difference was four thousand soldiers. However, the English subjects were better prepared and won. Quebec was taken, and a year later Montreal was captured. The result of the Seven Years' War was the ousting of the French from Canada.

Asian front

In 1757, the British and French captured land from each other in Bengal and India. There was also a struggle for dominance in the Indian Ocean between the two fleets. In 1759, French ships left the Indian coast.

The ground forces of Louis the Fifteenth were also not up to par. In 1760 they were defeated at Vandivash, and a year later the British achieved the surrender of the enemy from the capital of French India. Such results of the Seven Years' War suited George II quite well.

The British carried out military operations in the Philippines in 1762 against Spain. However, they could not stay there for long and in 1765 they completed the evacuation from the islands. The result of the Seven Years' War in the Philippines was the impetus for new anti-Spanish uprisings of the local population. However, they cannot be called successful. The Philippines remained under Spanish rule until 1898, when it was ceded to the United States.

Losses

Losses among the warring states:

Austria - four hundred thousand soldiers;
Prussia - about two hundred thousand;
France - up to two hundred thousand;
Russia – about one hundred and forty thousand;
England - twenty thousand.

No one can name the number of indigenous people killed in North America, India and other colonies for which the war was fought. What were the results of the Seven Years' War? Were they worth such sacrifices? Did the war resolve the contradictions between the strongest powers of Europe at that time?

Results of the Seven Years' War

Four peace treaties were signed between the warring countries. Each of them had its own characteristics:

Petersburg - it was already signed by Peter the Third. According to the agreement, Russia withdrew from the conflict and voluntarily transferred its lands to Prussia, which were occupied by Russian soldiers. Subsequently, these actions of Peter the Third became one of the reasons for the coup and the accession to the throne of Catherine the Second.
Hamburg - concluded between Sweden and Prussia. Peace was established on the terms of the withdrawal of Swedish troops from the occupied territories. The parties released prisoners without ransom.
The Paris Agreement was concluded by four states at once. England and Portugal negotiated with France and Spain. Louis the Fifteenth renounced Canada, Nova Scotia, the Gulf of St. Lawrence Islands, and the Ohio Valley. Spain received Havana from England, but ceded Florida. England received Puerto Rico, Minorca was returned to her, but she gave Martinique and Guadeloupe to France. Spain received Louisiana, but undertook to withdraw troops from Portugal. France had to leave Hanover, Senegal. The state of Louis XV was allowed to engage in fishing near Newfoundland, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
Hubertusburg - ended the war. Was signed between Austria, Prussia, Saxony. Maria Theresa renounced Silesia and Graudenz, and Frederick II did not demand compensation for damages. Troops were withdrawn from foreign lands, prisoners of war were freed or demobilized. By secret agreement, Prussia was going to vote for the son of Maria Theresa in the election of the head of the Holy Roman Empire.

Many contemporaries were perplexed about the peace treaty between European states. So much blood was shed, and as a result, the pre-war status quo was restored. However, this is not entirely true.

Consequences

Prussia became the leading state in Europe. The preconditions were laid for the unification of German territories under Prussian hegemony.

England did not have its own regular army. To resolve military conflicts, she used mercenary troops that she had all over the world. The prolonged war doubled the national debt. To extinguish it, Great Britain began to intensively exploit its American colonies. This led to the Revolutionary War. So we can say that the consequences of the Seven Years' War for England were extremely negative.