The world of natural laws. Laws of natural phenomena Immutable natural laws subordinating all natural phenomena

The science of nature has the ultimate goal of determining the laws that control phenomena. Z. here refers to the quantitative dependence of one phenomenon on another or several others that serve as the cause of the first or joint phenomena with it; also - quantitatively expressed mutual dependence of the properties of bodies. Eg. electric current passing through a certain wire, raises its temperature; the quantitative dependence of the heating of the wire on the current strength is the value of its heating. By measuring the dimensions of wires of various materials, the strength of electric currents passing through the wires, and the corresponding heating of the latter, a relationship is found between three phenomena: electric current (its strength), the separation of heat from the wire and the phenomenon of the so-called resistance of the wire to galvanic current. This is the following Z. Joule-Lenz: the amount of heat separated by a conductor is proportional to the product of the square of the current strength and the resistance of the wire. Z. Boyle-Mariotta, who says that the volume of a certain weight amount of gas changes in inverse proportion to the elasticity of this gas, expresses the numerical relationship between the phenomena - a change in volume and a change in elasticity. Without measured relationships between the quantities that characterize a phenomenon, the expression of z. is incomplete. It would be true to say that a decrease in the volume of a gas by compression at a constant temperature is accompanied by an increase in its elasticity, and an increase in the volume of the same amount of gas entails a decrease in its elasticity, but a statement expressed in this way would be incomplete, expressing only the character or quality of the phenomenon. However, qualitative laws are also inevitably necessary in science, as the predecessors of numerical, quantitative laws. There are many numerical dependencies between phenomena or properties of bodies, which, however, deserve only the name of rules. Eg. there is no doubt that the vapor pressure in a closed boiler increases with the temperature of this boiler (qualitative z.); The measurements made make it possible to express by a formula the numerical relationship between the temperature of the steam and its elasticity, but by a formula that is mathematically very complex, while the simplicity of the quantitative relationships is considered a sign of a valid law. In many cases, with the success of science, it becomes possible to prove a priori the necessity of the existence of Z., such as, for example, Z. Boyle-Mariotte, Z. Ohm, Z. Snell and Descartes. However, the simultaneous successes of the experimental part of the same sciences indicate the so-called. deviations from those found. Gases do not follow the Boyle-Mariotte law either at very strong pressures or at very weak ones; in general, this law is applicable between rather narrow limits; In addition, the nature of the deviations from the said regulation is not the same for different gases. On this basis they say that Z. Mariotta refers to an ideal gas; the reasons for deviations from this law, at least in the direction of greater pressure, are more or less clear and also represent legality, although numerically a priori it is still unclear. Another example of this kind can be taken from crystallography. All crystals existing in nature or obtained artificially by any means, with all the variety of shapes of these crystals, can be classified as a few basic geometric forms of crystallographic systems. However, numerous measurements of the angles between the faces of crystals assigned to any typical shape convince us that deviations (of small magnitude) from the type are much more common in nature than crystals of a precisely defined type. Thus, the type represents the ideal form of bodies (the result of the phenomenon of crystallization), which they can take only in the absence of all circumstances preventing this. The crystallization of groups of bodies, defined by the chemical and physical properties of each - according to one or another geometric type - is a concept that connects the crystallization of bodies into a certain form with their internal structure. This law is not derived a priori; its necessity is purely factual. In its present form, crystallization crystallization can only be classified as qualitative. Z. Snell and Descartes - the refractive index of light in a homogeneous medium is a constant ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence of the beam to the sine of the angle of refraction - in essence, it represents the relationship between the speeds of propagation of light in two different media; These speeds depend on the properties of the light ether and the substance of the medium.

The principle of universal gravitation, which consists in the fact that all bodies are mutually attracted and, moreover, in such a way that the force of mutual attraction of two bodies is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the squares of the distances between the bodies, is valid not only for celestial bodies our solar system, but also for the most distant worlds (double stars), some of which are visible only with the most powerful optical instruments. The same law is followed by the attraction of bodies by the Earth, the mutual attraction of bodies on the Earth and even partial attractions, at least at certain distances, so it forms the basis of the mechanical doctrine of the universe. However, from a philosophical-physical point of view, the mutual action of bodies depending solely on distance, i.e., geometric magnitude, does not seem completely clear. It has been proven that the mutual action of electrified bodies depends not only on the distance between them, but also on the properties of the medium separating them, i.e., that the action is transmitted gradually, from layer to layer, and that the intermediate medium can modify the final result, which, according to to the previous view, it seems to depend only on the size of the extreme bodies and the distance separating them. From an abstract point of view, which, however, does not yet have any support in experience, it is possible that the principle of universal gravitation is also subject to deviations. In any case, the search for typical patterns similar to those mentioned is the goal of all natural science, all mechanical study of nature. With the increase in the number of well-founded laws, it becomes easier to explain phenomena occurring under the joint and simultaneous influence of several laws. But the possibility of explaining many phenomena is greatly limited by the difficulty of numerically determining the joint action of many causes. Astronomy provides us with an example of the difficulty of numerically expressing the mutual action of several bodies only according to alone law of attractions. Calculating the orbits of comets subject to the gravitational pull of the planets they pass along their path is a colossal task. The movements of particles, these supposed material units, are completely unknown to us, with the slight exception of gases, and the properties of bodies and their mutual relations should depend on the type of these movements. Science is extremely far from knowing the principles by which bodies in general possess various properties that belong to them (elasticity, thermal conductivity, density, color, etc.), and is even farther from the aprioristic derivation of phenomena, from the mutual actions of bodies that occur. The greatest difficulty in interpreting phenomena occurs in the biological sciences. Any interpretation that connects a phenomenon with another that is closest to it is considered a great success. All the most substantiated biological theories in these sciences also belong to the qualitative category; a priori values of a numerical nature are completely unknown. Every natural scientist engaged in the study of nature’s semblance strives in his research to eliminate, whenever possible, everything, according to his assumption, that obscures the manifestation of the main semblance; in those cases when experience is not available to the naturalist and he must limit himself to just one observation, the discovery of Z. occurs with extraordinary slowness. Nevertheless, the natural scientist can now with reason reject the effect of chance in natural phenomena, because, from his point of view, chance is an extraordinary and very rarely repeated phenomenon in its characteristics, consisting of many actions performed according to simple basic principles. Based on part into quantitative, partly qualitative Z. a naturalist can, albeit in general terms, imagine not only the structure of the universe, the structure of our planet and the circulation of phenomena occurring on it, but also give an account of many phenomena occurring in individual bodies of nature, in the world of invisible particles. The possibility of further success in the knowledge of nature's semblances is entirely based on the assumption that these semblances are unchangeable; one cannot decide to find relationships between phenomena without confidence that they are as constant as matter is indestructible and cannot be created before our eyes. Confidence in the legality of natural phenomena and the immutability of laws is based on the correct repeatability of a number of phenomena over many centuries and on the possibility of predicting some phenomena, both on the basis of the law of their repeatability, and on the basis that some found physical, chemical, mechanical, etc. . Z. have already pointed out the existence of phenomena that, without the discovery of these laws, could remain unknown for an indefinitely long time. So, for example, Hamilton discovered the phenomenon of conical refraction through calculations, Le Verrier discovered the existence of a hitherto unknown planet (Neptune), Mendeleev’s periodic law of elements led to the discovery of some new simple bodies (chemical elements).

Natural disasters that damage agriculture. Agricultural land covers approximately a third of the land mass and is therefore impacted in some way by almost every type of natural disaster. But still, a special role belongs to phenomena that directly affect crops. These include drought, hail, and frost. Droughts periodically cover arid and semiarid regions of the Earth, but in some years they can also occur in humid regions - the northeastern USA, the British Isles, the forest belt

Russia, etc.

Drought is a long-term and significant lack of precipitation compared to the norm for a given region, as a result of which moisture reserves in the soil dry up and unfavorable conditions are created for the normal development of plants. For natural vegetation, drought is less of a threat because plants have adapted to natural dynamics over a long period of evolution. Agricultural crops have less adaptive capacity and sharply reduce yields during droughts. Damage to agricultural plants depends not only on the degree of deviation of weather conditions from the norm, but also on the nature and methods of agricultural production: the set of crop varieties, agricultural technology used, the amount of fertilizers used, etc. A distinction is made between atmospheric drought (a state of the atmosphere with a deficit of precipitation, high temperature and low humidity) and soil drought, i.e. soil drying that occurs as a consequence of atmospheric drought. Atmospheric drought is a consequence of atmospheric circulation processes, and soil drought is the result of atmospheric drought, but it also largely depends on the nature of the soil, location, agricultural practices used and the type of crop.

One of the oldest ways to overcome the effects of drought and ensure sustainable crop yields is irrigation. At the end of the 20th century, due to the growth of technical and economic capabilities, the area of irrigated land increased sharply, reaching 188 million hectares in 1970, 236 million hectares in 1980, and 259 million hectares in 1990. According to forecasts, the growth of the area of irrigated land will soon stop, since the ceiling of the environmental and economic profitability of irrigation has already been reached: along with the increase in income from increasing the yield of irrigated crops, many environmental problems have arisen - secondary salinization, soil compaction and dehumification, irrigation erosion.

The most reliable and ecologically perfect are other methods of overcoming the consequences of atmospheric drought: landscape reclamation (creation of forest strips, use of curtains for moisture accumulation, mulching, etc.), use of farming systems adapted to dry conditions (no-moldboard plowing, combined cropping , landscape-contour farming, breeding drought-resistant plant varieties, etc.).

To support agricultural producers, crop insurance against drought has been introduced.

Another disaster that causes great damage to agriculture is hail. Vineyards, fruit and vegetable crops are especially hard hit by hail. It is typical that even if hail is forecast, damage is difficult to prevent. Hail is usually associated with powerful cumulonimbus clouds. The Rocky Mountains and Great Plains in the USA, Ciscaucasia, Transcaucasia, and many tropical areas are characterized by the greatest frequency and intensity of hail. To combat hail, clouds are seeded with silver iodide, which causes precipitation to fall out of the clouds even before large hailstones form in them.

One of the most common adverse weather events is frost. They mean a decrease in air and/or soil temperature at night below zero degrees during a period when average daily temperatures are positive. There are spring and autumn frosts. Spring frosts affect plants at a time when the latter have already adapted to fairly high temperatures. Therefore, the effects of frost (usually at temperatures from 0°C to -10°C) are much more dangerous than low temperatures in winter. Frosts are associated with certain weather conditions (a clear, quiet night - radiation frosts, the arrival of a cold air mass - advective frosts) and location - frosts are more often observed in depressions of the relief, especially in closed ones. Frosts are favored by soils that have poor thermal conductivity: wetlands, sandy soils.

There are quite effective methods for forecasting frosts. However, the presence of a forecast does not guarantee crop protection. Knowing about freezing, it is necessary to choose methods to prevent a significant drop in temperature. These include:

Covering plants with films, cardboard, etc. (can be used primarily to protect vegetable crops);

Creation of a smoke screen (it prevents soil radiation);

Heating areas using fires, oil burners and other methods.

But the most effective and at the same time cheapest way to prevent frost is to choose a place to grow the appropriate crop: the nature of the plant and the microclimate conditions must be adapted to each other.

General patterns of manifestation of natural disasters

The natural disasters discussed above, as well as many others (for example, karst, heavy snowfalls, severe frosts, destruction sea shores), have certain patterns of territorial distribution and manifestation over time.

Phenomena such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are confined to active geotectonic zones. It is characteristic that in recent decades the territorial pattern of earthquakes has undergone some changes. Earthquakes are increasingly occurring in areas of high technogenic load.

Zones of occurrence of man-made (induced) earthquakes are usually localized in areas of large (more than 1 cubic km) reservoirs, gas, oil, coal production (in Ukraine within the shelf of the Black and Azov Seas and eastern Donbass), boundary watering in oil fields (Bashkiria, Russia) and in other areas where fluid is injected into wells. The most striking example is a well in the Denver area (USA) with a depth of 3671 m, into which wastewater began to be injected on March 8, 1962. After injection, tremors were immediately recorded, the number and strength of which increased with increasing injection volume (February - March 1963, the same in June - September 1965). The epicenters of these earthquakes were located in a small zone in the area of the well. More than 1,500 tremors were recorded between 1962 and 1967 (Kissin, 1982).

Similar examples can be given in other regions. In particular, in the area of Grozny, during the injection of water to maintain reservoir pressure in 1971, an earthquake with a magnitude of 4.1 (up to 7 points) occurred. Since 1955, periodic outbreaks of seismic activity have been observed in this area.

Laws of nature are statements that express a constant property or constant connection of any phenomena in living or inanimate nature . For example, the law of nature is the law of communicating vessels, the law of attraction, thermal conductivity of metals, etc.

An essential characteristic of a law of nature is its universality . The description of a single fact is not a law of nature. The law always serves to express properties that are common to a number of phenomena or objects. For example, the fact that it is raining today is not a law of nature, but an indication of a single fact. But the fact that water in the state of steam makes up a significant part of the atmosphere and participates in the water cycle in nature is a law of nature.

Another essential feature of the law of nature is its necessity . The natural phenomenon itself, or the connection between phenomena or the connection between objects must be mandatory. One must determine the other or follow from the other, i.e. there must be a strict cause-and-effect relationship. If in at least one case such a connection is not traced, then the law of nature ceases to be such, or, at least, an exception is formulated to it, and the law from absolute becomes relative. For example, the statement that increasing the temperature of a liquid increases the rate of its evaporation is a law of nature. There is a strict relationship between these phenomena - an increase in temperature and the rate of evaporation of liquid. But if one day a liquid is discovered with the unique property of being indifferent to evaporation due to any increase in temperature, the law of nature we have formulated will cease to be such, or an exception to it will be formulated.

In short, the laws of nature are essential, necessary and repeating connections between objects of the real world .

The laws of nature reveal the essence of objects, the nature of their existence and development.

The laws of nature are objective , they exist before us and outside of us. They are not the subjective creation of our imagination.

According to their methodological level, the laws of nature are divided into empirical and theoretical . Empirical laws express connections between objects and phenomena that we can observe and evaluate experimentally, including using special scientific equipment. Theoretical laws reveal to us deeper internal connections of phenomena. We formulate theoretical laws using general logical and specifically scientific methods, including mathematical ones, through the introduction of theoretical concepts.

The laws of nature can also be classified depending on the fields of scientific knowledge , in which such laws are learned. So, we can talk about physical laws, biological laws, laws of the human psyche.

Who established the laws of nature or is it their cause? To this question materialists They answer that the reason for these laws is the very essence of objects and phenomena, their objective properties. For example, the reason for the law of electrical conductivity of metals is the presence of free electrons in atomic shells. Another answer to the question posed is that the laws of nature were established by God immediately at the moment of creation of the world. This point of view is held religious philosophers . The Supreme Mind or the Absolute may appear as a supernatural force that established the laws of nature. This is the point of view idealists . Initially, in philosophy, the expression “laws of nature” was used precisely to contrast “divine laws.”

Among the laws of nature there are those in which man is capable of interfering. This topic is extremely relevant today in connection with environmental problems on the planet. Important ethical aspects of human intervention in the laws of heredity of living organisms should also be mentioned. The possibility and necessity of human intervention in the operation of the laws of nature must be assessed from the point of view of morality, ethics, as well as the question of the very survival of humanity on the planet.

Human society also has its own laws. The laws of society are the laws of human activity, but not individual, but social, collective. These are the laws of interaction between human groups of various sizes. They can be divided into economic laws and social laws . For example, economic laws include the laws of monetary circulation (the amount of money in circulation as a whole must correspond to the amount of goods produced and imported), the laws of the purchasing power of the population and inflation (an increase in the purchasing power of the population inevitably leads to inflation, i.e. a fall in the value of money and the corresponding falling prices rise). Social laws include the laws of population (an increase in material well-being always entails a decrease in population growth or even a decrease in population).

The laws of society may have objective form , be expressed in legal laws, or not have such a form of expression.

Unlike the laws of nature, which generally operate independently of human consciousness, the laws of society have a very strong subjective charge. After all, society is not a mechanical unit, therefore the operation of the laws of society depends on human activity. Moreover, both from collective actions and from individual actions of persons in power. For example, the natural (gradual and consistent) development of capitalist relations in Russia in 1917 was forcibly and artificially disrupted by the October Bolshevik coup. Moreover, one single person played a huge role in this - V.I. Lenin, without whom such a revolution could not have taken place.

Since a person has the opportunity to directly influence the action of the laws of development of society, these laws should be more correctly called patterns or trends . After all, there is always the possibility that, due to the efforts of people, the law will be violated for some time.

It is important to understand that the action of the laws of society as trends in the development of social relations does not depend on the will of people . Once a social pattern is broken, the development of human relations will still return to its previous path.

It is also important to understand the laws of society are a product of the conscious activity of the people themselves . Outside human society there can be no laws of society.

The laws of society may have universal character - act throughout human history and extend to all of humanity. For example, the law of the general increase in population on the planet. Laws may be private – i.e. act only on a specific segment of human history. For example, the feudal law on the right of the feudal lord to appropriate agricultural products in exchange for military protection of the peasants. Laws may be specific , i.e. manifested in a specific social formation. For example, the law of party discipline and the subordination of the minority party to the majority.

Nowadays it has become fashionable to talk about the laws of nature and society. In relation to nature, this is, strictly speaking, incorrect. Nature knows no laws. We come up with them, trying to at least somehow systematize what is happening. The term “law of nature” should be understood in the sense that natural phenomena are repeatable and therefore predictable. Be that as it may, the repeatability of natural phenomena makes it possible for science to formulate laws that are commonly called the laws of nature. In their study, humanity is guided by some extremely general principles that facilitate the process of studying natural phenomena.

One of the most general principles of natural science is principle of causality, asserting that one natural phenomenon gives rise to another, being its cause.

The existence of a chain of cause and effect relationships sometimes allows us to draw conclusions general. Thus, relying only on the continuity of the chain of causes and effects, the German ship's doctor Robert Mayer was able to formulate the law of conservation and transformation of energy, which is the fundamental law of modern natural science.

Please note that the question “why” is, strictly speaking, illegitimate. We do not know and, apparently, will never know the final cause of any natural phenomenon. It would be more correct to ask “how”. What pattern describes this phenomenon?

Science in its development is working to identify more and more profound causes of natural phenomena. This process gives theologians reason to argue that ultimately the scientific process must lead to the identification of the final cause, i.e. God, and at this point science and religion will merge.

Another general principle is Cure principle And. It is named after the same Pierre Curie who, together with his wife Maria Sklodowska Curie, discovered the chemical element radium. In addition, Pierre Curie made quite a lot of scientific discoveries during his short life. Apparently, the most important of them is the Curie principle.

Imagine some quality A. For example, an electric charge or, say, red hair color, or some other quality. It is unlikely that it will be evenly distributed in space. Most likely, there will be a gradient in space (the gradient of a scalar function is a vector directed in the direction of the fastest increase in this function. The magnitude of the gradient is equal to the derivative of this function, taken in the direction of its fastest increase) of this quality.

Curie's principle states that if there is a gradient of a certain quality A, then there will inevitably be a transfer of this quality towards its deficiency, and the flow of quality A, i.e. its quantity transferred through a unit area per unit time, is proportional to the magnitude of this gradient.

Imagine the spatial distribution of a commodity called bay leaf in our country. Its maximum occurs, of course, in the subtropical zones of the Caucasus, and its minimum, which is quite natural, occurs in the regions of the Far North. There is a gradient bay leaf. According to the Curie principle, the existence of such a gradient will lead to the transfer of bay leaves from the Caucasus regions to the North.

There are a huge number of empirical laws from the field of physical and chemical kinetics from Ohm’s law to the classical diffusion equation, which are consequences of the Curie principle. It seems to me that economists should take this principle very seriously. A clear understanding of it will help you avoid a lot of mistakes.

Extremely scientifically productive is the previously mentioned principle of duality (complementarity). It is based on the dual nature of knowledge. You have probably already noticed the existence of paired concepts that jointly define mutually exclusive aspects of the whole. Isolating such parts is an essential part of the process of cognition.

When describing anything, we resort to abstractions- highlighting the aspects of what is being studied that are important in this regard. Non-essential aspects are usually omitted from consideration. Subsequently, if the chosen abstraction turns out to be fruitful, it replaces the original idea of the phenomenon being studied. In this case, the discarded aspects of the phenomenon are omitted from consideration, even if they are very significant.

The principle of duality

The principle of duality instructs us to simultaneously consider two mutually exclusive aspects when describing anything. Depending on the circumstances, one of them may be more significant. In other circumstances, the other will be more important. If, while trying to solve a problem, you encounter insurmountable difficulties, try an approach based on alternative ideas. It is very likely that it will be successful.

Who among you will tell what light is? At school they explained to you that this is an electromagnetic wave. This idea is accepted in the classical paradigm and, in general, describes the property of light quite well. However, as you know, light consists of individual particles - photons. Without this idea it is impossible to explain the photoelectric effect, the Compton effect and much more. So what is light - is it a wave or a stream of particles? When studying the properties of light, both abstractions are acceptable. According to the principle of duality, it is possible to avoid errors in the description by carrying out both descriptions in parallel.

Superposition principle

The principle of superposition states that the result of the influence of two factors on a material system can be represented in the form of a superposition (superposition) of the influence of each of these factors acting independently of each other. This principle implicitly assumes that when superimposed, the factors do not disturb each other. The principle has a lesser degree of generality than the Curie principle. However, in many cases it turns out to be very useful.

Principle of symmetry

The principle of symmetry is based on the original ideas about the homogeneity and isotropy of space. Assumes invariance of natural processes to symmetry transformations. Based on the principle of symmetry, Emmy Noether showed that the fundamental physical laws of conservation of energy and momentum (momentum) are a consequence of the homogeneity and isotropy of space.

The principle of symmetry uses the intuitive idea of complete equality of right and left. The “left” orientation of living nature should seem all the more surprising to you. You probably know that the molecules of many natural compounds are twisted like a spring. For example, sugar or cholesterol that enters your body has such a twisted structure. Many enzymes of plant and animal origin have a helical structure. If such compounds are obtained by chemical synthesis, then, in full accordance with the principle of symmetry, approximately the same number of molecules are obtained, twisted in a right-handed and left-handed spiral. So, all life on our planet consists of molecules twisted in a left-handed spiral. Please note that your heart is shifted to the left and not to the right. Why this is so, science has yet to find out. For now, let us note that the principle of symmetry, no matter how temptingly obvious it may look, is very, very limited.

Even more limited, although no less fruitful, is the principle of similarity. According to this principle, after a certain transformation, the equations describing similar systems turn out to be the same.

Let's take, for example, the so-called small fluctuations. It turns out that after some mathematical transformations, the oscillation of a load suspended on a string and the electric current in an oscillatory circuit can be described by the same equation. Unfortunately, the principle of similarity cannot always be applied. However, if in the process of your practical activity you were able to discover similarities between some groups of phenomena, consider that success is guaranteed to you.

The principle of relativity

According to the principle of relativity, there is no absolute motion. And therefore, there is no absolute space, absolute time, etc. This principle implies that the course of natural processes does not depend on the point of view of the observer who describes them. It was put forward by Albert Einstein as one of the foundations of the special theory of relativity. Disputed by many scientists. Currently, it has firmly entered the inert core of the modern scientific paradigm.

A direct consequence of the principle of relativity is the principle of invariance of the laws of nature to transformations of the frame of reference in which they were formulated. The principle of invariance states that the form of the basic equations describing natural phenomena does not depend on the transformation of coordinates and time included in these equations.

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Philosophical Corner

Principles and laws of development of being

The development of being does not occur spontaneously, but is subject to certain principles and laws. The principle is understood as the initial basic rule that determines the content and direction of activity. For example, the principle of objectivity when considering controversial cases by an arbitration court assumes that only the merits of the case will be considered, but not the characteristics of any of the parties. When they say about a person that he is principled, they mean that he always follows strictly defined principles in his assessments and actions.
The surrounding world is varied and diverse in its manifestations, it is “inhabited” by an infinite number of objects, phenomena and processes, and each of them is unique, possessing only its own inherent features and properties. But, despite this diversity, which at first glance appears as a chaotic accumulation of things and events, being is a cosmos, an order, an organized whole. This means that there is a connection between the various objects that make up existence. The principle of connection is key to understanding the essence, content and direction of development.
A connection is a relationship between objects separated in space and time, when changes in one of them entail changes in the other. Connections are classified on different grounds: by direction of action (direct and reverse), by forms of conditioning (unambiguous, probabilistic and correlational), by result (transformation, generation, reproduction), by strength (hard and weak), by content (transfer of matter, energy or information) and others. The universal reason that encourages objects to enter into communication with each other is the disturbed balance within the object or between the object and the environment of its existence. This can manifest itself in loss of energy, loss of some component, or lack of vital information. By entering into contact with other objects, a given object replenishes its completeness and integrity.
Of the various types of connections, the most valuable are causal connections, that is, those that establish a genetic dependence between the individual states of objects during their development and functioning. According to the principle of causality, the emergence of any objects and systems and changes in their properties over time have their basis in previous states; These reasons are called causes, and the changes they cause are called effects. The essence of causation is the generation of an effect by a cause; the effect, determined by the cause, has a reverse effect on it. Human activity is organized on the basis of causality and scientific forecasts are developed.
In philosophy and science, there are two opposing views on the nature of causal relationships between objects: determinism and indeterminism. Determinism (from the Latin determino - I determine) states that all phenomena in the world are interconnected and causally determined, and therefore causal explanation plays a primary role in knowledge. Indeterminism (in Latin the prefix in- means negation) is a doctrine that denies the universal and objective nature of the causal relationship of natural and social phenomena and, as a result, ignores the value of causal explanation in science.
Repeated, stable and necessary cause-and-effect relationships are called laws. The content of laws reflects the objective connection between real phenomena and processes occurring in nature and in society. The famous physicist and mathematician A. Poincaré believed that laws are the best expression of the harmony of the world. Philosophy classifies laws by degree of generality (universal, general and particular), by sphere of regulation (laws of nature, laws of thinking, social laws), by content (laws of development and laws of functioning). In modern science, it is customary to distinguish between dynamic and statistical (probabilistic) laws.
The dynamic law controls the behavior of an individual object and allows one to establish an unambiguous connection between its states. In other words, the dynamic law describes a possibility that must necessarily be realized. Predictions made on the basis of dynamic laws are absolutely accurate and unambiguous.
Statistical law regulates the relationships between large collections of objects, and its results are not unambiguous. It defines a wide range of possible implementations for each of a collection of objects. Forecasts based on statistical laws are probabilistic in nature. Probabilistic laws describe the behavior of people in large groups, the relationship between gas molecules, the relationship between elementary particles in the microcosm.
For a long time in science and philosophy it was believed that only dynamic laws are “real” laws, that is, they express objective, universal and necessary connections between objects. However, the creation of quantum mechanics and observation of the microworld gave grounds for the conclusion that statistical laws are no less important and significantly expand our knowledge of causality. In modern physics, they believe that dynamic laws are the first, lowest stage of knowledge of the world, and statistical laws reflect the connections between objects more deeply and comprehensively. A probabilistic description of the world is not an indicator of ignorance and ignorance, but a consequence of a complex, multi-level structure of existence. Examples of dynamic scientific theories are: classical mechanics, classical electrodynamics, general and special relativity. Statistical theories include all quantum theories, statistical mechanics, and genetics.
In Hegel's dialectical philosophy, three laws were developed, which, according to this thinker, reflected the holistic process of development of nature, society and human knowledge. This is the law of unity and struggle of opposites, the law of the mutual transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones and the law of the negation of negation. The core of these laws is formed by the idea of contradiction as a universal cause of development. Despite the educational value of these laws, which generally reflect the sources, mechanisms and direction of development, they are not suitable for a detailed explanation of cause-and-effect interactions. Therefore, they are used to illustrate the historical process, the evolution of living nature, and the contradictory nature of the cognition process. They will be discussed in more detail below.

Divine philosophy! Having once tasted your fruits, you can forever taste at your feast that sweet nectar from which there is no satiety.
John Milton

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Why are there laws of nature?

As the law of biogenesis states: life always comes from life. Both empirical science and Genesis 1 tell us that all organisms on earth reproduce their own kind. This law, like other laws of nature, exists because the universe has its Creator, who is logical and who established order in His universe.

The universe obeys certain rules - laws that all existing things must adhere to. These are very precise laws and many of them are of a mathematical nature. The laws of nature are hierarchical in nature; The minor laws of nature are based on the fundamental laws of nature, which must be very precise and correct in order for the existence of our universe to be possible at all. But where do these laws come from, and why do they exist? If the universe is just a random product of the big bang, then why should there be ordered principles—or any principles at all, for that matter—underlying its existence? Such laws are consistent with biblical creation. The laws of nature exist because the universe has its Creator, God, who is logical and who established order in His universe (Genesis 1:1). Does God exist? Let's think about it.

Word of God

Absolutely everything that exists in the universe - every plant and animal, every rock, every particle of matter and light wave - is bound by laws that they simply must adhere to. The Bible tells us that there are laws of nature - “the statutes of the heavens and the earth” (Jeremiah 33:25). These laws describe to us how God generally carries out His will in the universe.

God's logic is embedded in the universe and therefore the universe is not random or arbitrary. It is subject to the laws of chemistry, which logically follow from the laws of physics, many of which can logically follow from other laws of physics and the laws of mathematics. The most fundamental laws of nature exist only because God allows them to exist; they are the logical, organized way in which God maintains and sustains the universe He created. An atheist is unable to explain the logical and orderly state of the universe. Why should the universe obey laws if there is no one who gave these laws? But the laws of nature fit perfectly with the biblical account of creation. In fact, the Bible is the basis of the laws of nature.

Laws of life (biogenesis)

There is one very well known law of life: the law of biogenesis. This law simply states that life always comes from life. Here's what observational science tells us about this: organisms reproduce other similar organisms. If we look into history, we will see that Louis Pasteur refuted one supposed case of spontaneous generation; he showed that life comes from pre-existing life. Much time has passed since then, and we see today that this law is universal - without exceptions. This is, of course, exactly what the Bible says. As Genesis 1 tells us, God supernaturally created the first diverse species of life on earth and caused them to reproduce their own kind. Please note that evolution from molecule to man violates this law of biogenesis. Evolutionists believe that life (at least once) formed spontaneously from nonliving chemicals. But this completely contradicts the law of biogenesis. True science only confirms the Bible.

Absolutely everything that exists in the universe - every plant and animal, every rock, every particle of matter and light wave - is bound by laws that they simply must adhere to.

Laws of chemistry

Life requires specific chemical laws. Our bodies are powered by chemical reactions and depend on the laws of chemistry, which are constantly in effect. Even the information that makes up every living thing is stored in a long molecule called DNA. As we know, life could not exist if the chemical laws were different. God created the laws of chemistry exactly as they must be in order for life on earth to be possible.

The laws of chemistry give different properties to the different elements (each made up of a specific type of atom) and compounds (made up of two or more types of atoms that are bonded together) in the universe. For example, given sufficient activation energy, the lightest element (hydrogen) reacts with oxygen to form water. Water itself has very interesting properties, such as the ability to hold unusually large amounts of thermal energy. When water freezes, it forms crystals with hexagonal symmetry (which is why snowflakes are hexagonal). In contrast, salt crystals (sodium chloride) form in the shape of a cube. Due to the hexagonal symmetry of frozen water, “holes” are formed in its crystals, causing water crystals to have a lower density than its liquid form. This is why ice floats in water (while essentially all frozen compounds sink in their own liquid form).

The properties of compounds and elements are not random. In fact, based on their physical properties, elements can be logically arranged into a periodic table. Substances in the same column of the table have similar properties. This happens because the elements in a vertical column have the same outer electron structures. These electrons, far from the center, determine the physical characteristics of the atom. The periodic table did not arise by chance. Atoms and molecules have diverse properties because their electrons are bound by the laws of quantum physics. In other words, chemistry is based on physics. If the laws of quantum physics were even slightly different, then atoms could not exist at all. God created the laws of physics exactly as they must be in order for the laws of chemistry to manifest themselves the way He wants.

Laws of planetary motion

Creation scientist Johannes Kepler discovered that the planets of our solar system are subject to three laws of nature. He established that the planets rotate in an oval (and not in regular circles, as previously thought), with the sun located in the center of this oval; thus, a certain planet is closer to the sun at some point in time than at other times. Kepler also discovered that planets travel equal distances in equal times—in other words, the speed of planets in their orbits increases as they get closer to the sun. And thirdly, Kepler established a precise mathematical relationship between the distance from a planet to the sun (a) and its orbital period (p); planets that are further from the sun orbit slower than planets that are closer to the sun (this can be expressed as p 2 =a 3). Kepler's laws also apply to the orbits of satellites orbiting a particular planet. 1

For the laws of chemistry, these laws of planetary motion are not fundamental. They are rather a logical consequence of other laws of nature. By the way, another creationist scientist (Sir Isaac Newton) discovered that Kepler's laws can be mathematically derived from certain laws of physics - namely, from the laws of gravity and motion (which Newton himself formulated).

Laws of physics

The field of physics describes the behavior of the universe at its most fundamental level. There are many different laws of physics. They all relate to how all processes in the universe occur today. Some laws of physics describe how light propagates, how energy is transferred, how gravity acts, how material bodies move in space, and many other phenomena. The laws of physics are usually mathematical in nature; Some laws of physics can be described using a short formula such as E=mc 2 . The simple formula F=ma shows how the speed of an object with mass (m) will increase (a) when acted upon by a resultant force (F). It is simply amazing that every object in the universe constantly obeys these rules.

There is a hierarchy in physics: some laws of physics can be derived from other laws of physics. For example, Einstein's famous formula E=mc 2 can be derived from the principles and equations of the special theory of relativity. Conversely, there are many laws of physics that cannot be derived from other laws of physics; Many of these laws are believed to be derived principles, but scholars have not yet established their origins.

But some laws of physics can undoubtedly be fundamental (and not based on other laws); they exist only because God allows them to exist. In fact, this concerns at least one law of physics (and possibly several) - the most fundamental one. Logically speaking, if the most fundamental law were based on any other laws, it would not be the most fundamental law.

The laws of physics (along with their attendant constants) are precisely and correctly established in order for life, especially human life, to exist. This fact is called the “anthropic principle.” 1

1. Word anthropic comes from the Greek word anthropos, which means person.

Laws of mathematics

Please note that the laws of physics are extremely mathematical in nature. They would not work if there were no laws of mathematics. Mathematical laws and principles include the rules of addition, transitivity, the commutative property of addition and multiplication, Newton's binomial, and many other rules. Like the laws of physics, some laws and properties of mathematics can be derived from other mathematical principles. But unlike the laws of physics, the laws of mathematics are abstract; they are not "connected" to any particular part of the universe. It is possible to imagine a universe in which the laws of physics differ, but it is difficult to imagine a universe consistent with different laws of mathematics. 2

The laws of mathematics are an example of "transcendent truth". They must be true no matter what kind of universe God created. This may be due to the fact that God's nature is logical and mathematical; thus, whatever universe God created, it would necessarily be mathematical in nature. An unbelieving naturalist cannot explain the laws of mathematics. He certainly believes in mathematics and uses mathematics, but he is unable to explain the existence of mathematics within the framework of a naturalistic worldview, since mathematics is not part of the physical universe. However, the Christian understands that God exists above the universe and that mathematics reflects the thoughts of God. Understanding mathematics is, in a sense, “understanding God's thoughts” 3 (in a limited and extreme sense, of course).

Some people think that mathematics is a human invention. They say that if human history If it were different, a completely different form of mathematics would be developed - with alternative laws, theorems, axioms, and so on. But such thinking is contradictory. Are we really supposed to believe that the universe did not obey the laws of mathematics before humans discovered them? Did the planets really rotate in their orbits somehow differently before Kepler established that p 2 =a 3? What is certain is that mathematical laws are something that humanity has discovered, not invented. The only thing that might have been different (and human history would have gone in a different direction) is writing - the way we choose to express mathematical truths through symbols. But these truths exist no matter how we express them. Mathematics can rightfully be called the “language of creation”.

Laws of logic

All laws of nature, from physics and chemistry to the law of biogenesis, depend on the laws of logic. Like mathematical laws, the laws of logic are transcendental truths. We cannot imagine that the laws of logic could differ from those that exist. Take, for example, the law of consistency. According to this law, you cannot have an object “A” and an object “not A” at the same time and in the same proportion. Without the laws of logic, reasoning would be simply impossible. But where did these laws of logic come from?

An atheist cannot explain the laws of logic, even though he or she is forced to accept that they exist for rational thought to make sense. According to the Bible, God is logical. Undoubtedly, the law of non-contradiction reflects the nature of God; in God there is no lie (Numbers 23:19) and He cannot be tempted by evil (James 1:13), since these concepts are contrary to His perfect nature. Because we were created in the image of God, we instinctively understand the laws of logic. We are capable of reasoning logically (although, as a result of our limited minds and sin, we do not always think completely logically).

Consistency of nature

The laws of nature are consistent. They do not change (voluntarily), and their action is spread throughout the entire cosmos. The laws of nature operate in the future just as they acted in the past; this is one of the most basic assumptions in all of science. Without this assumption, science would be impossible. If the laws of nature suddenly and without sufficient reason change tomorrow, then the results of past experiments will not tell us anything about the future. Why is it that we can believe that the laws of nature consistently apply at all times? Unbelieving scientists cannot prove this important assumption. But a Christian can, because the Bible gives us the answer. God is the Lord of all creation, and He holds the universe together in a constant and logical manner. God does not change, and therefore He always keeps the universe consistent and unchanging (Jeremiah 33:25).

Conclusion

We have seen that the laws of nature depend on other laws of nature, which ultimately depend on God's will. Thus, God created the laws of physics to be precise and appropriate so that the laws of chemistry would be correct so that life could exist. It is unlikely that any person would be able to solve such a complex problem. And yet, the Lord did it. An atheist cannot explain these laws of nature (even though he agrees that they must exist) because these laws are not consistent with the concept of naturalism. However, they are perfectly consistent with the Bible. We think that the universe is formed in a logical and orderly manner and obeys unchanging laws because the universe was created by God's power.

Dr. Jason Lisley received his PhD in astrophysics from the University of Colorado Boulder City. Dr. Lisley is a popular author and researcher on the Answers of Genesis mission. He uses his knowledge of heaven to testify to God's handiwork and offers his lectures on DVD such as Light from distant stars And Creation astronomy .

However, the constant of proportionality is different for the third law. This is because the mass of the sun is different from the mass of the planet. Return to text.
Provided that there are various systems of initial definitions and axioms that allow some change in mathematical systems of thought (alternative geometry, and so on). But most of the basic principles remain the same. Return to text.
This phrase is attributed to creationist astronomer Johannes Kepler. Return to text.

www.origins.org.ua

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Since that famous January night in 1610, when Galileo pointed his telescope at the sky and discovered the moons of Jupiter, many scientists and enthusiasts have followed his example and discovered many planets and stars whose existence is currently unconfirmed. And long before Galileo, inexplicable phenomena in space puzzled thinkers and excited the minds of ordinary people. Today - in the 21st century, despite the fact that modern science has advanced far forward, many discoveries and observations have accumulated in astronomy that require new theoretical constructs for their explanation. All of them, at first glance, seem extremely complex, but, given the experience of the past, scientists are in no hurry to retreat.

The next book in the series tells about the most exciting mysteries of modern astronomy.

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We see that the world lives according to certain rules called “laws of nature.” Scientists discover these laws and formulate them. Progress in science is closely related to such discoveries. They help to summarize facts, explain what is happening, and predict the future. It seems natural to many that in the chaos of phenomena that surrounds us, a harmonious order can be discerned, which is noticeable at all levels from the Microcosm to the Macrocosm. The entire universe lives according to laws that hold it together, like a body - a skeleton.

But where did these laws come from? Are they eternal or do they change over time? Does nature blindly obey them or can it violate them?

For centuries, people have answered these questions without thinking. The laws of nature were invented by God. They last forever. Therefore, they arose at the moment of the creation of the world - in scientific terms, during the Big Bang. And, obviously, even then they were “ideal”.

But this is hard to believe. Is it possible to foresee everything in advance? Why, at the moment of the birth of the Universe, do we need a law that would “monitor” that certain metals, at a temperature close to zero on the Kelvin scale, lose their electrical resistance? What ultra-low temperatures were we talking about at that moment?

What if you answer differently? Maybe the laws of nature were “not created” by anyone? What if they gradually formed over many millions of years? We know that nature undergoes evolution. Living organisms adapt to the world around them and change accordingly. Perhaps a similar evolution occurs in space. Elementary particles (protons, electrons, neutrons and others like them) somehow “adapt” to each other. Certain “rules of living” for these particles arise.

Maybe the laws of nature arose at the moment of the Creation of the world? – scientifically speaking, during the Big Bang

However, such ideas contradict the facts accumulated by astrophysics. The light of distant galaxies brings to us news of what laws were in effect shortly after the “creation of the world.” The spectral lines of light rays indicate that the stars in that era obeyed the same laws as now.

In the debate about the essence of the laws of nature, several parties stand out.

Realists believe that the laws of nature exist independently of our formulations and definitions. They are as real as chairs, Steven Weinberg wrote polemically in his book “The Dream of the Unity of the Universe.”

Of course, the laws of nature deserve much more respect than any objects. After all, the latter still cannot escape from under our power. We are free to rearrange a chair, move the hand of a clock, crush a block of stone, but we cannot influence the laws of nature. No matter how much we observe the Sun, we are unable to change, for example, the strength of its gravity. We depend on the laws of nature, but they do not depend on us. These laws are not invented by us, but discovered. And just as a deserted island, lost in the ocean, existed long before man saw it, so the laws of nature were expressed in the language of mathematics even at that time, and not just since they were discovered. Some other modern scientists are also convinced of this, for example, Alexander Vilenkin: “We must assume that the laws of physics existed “even before” the Universe arose.” In his opinion, the very fact of the birth of the Universe a priori presupposes the existence of certain laws according to which its development will proceed. This point of view is close to the tradition of Plato, who believed that beyond the boundaries of the visible world there really exists a world of ideas.

Positivists and nominalists are convinced of the opposite. “Physical theories are just mathematical models that we construct,” says Stephen Hawking. “We cannot ask ourselves what reality is, because we cannot verify what is real and what is not without resorting to the help of various kinds of models.” This opinion is not new. The physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach, who once became the object of attacks by the first classic of Leninism, called for limiting ourselves only to simple mathematical descriptions of empirical processes, and the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein in his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus polemically stated that “the basis of the entire modern worldview lies in the erroneous belief in that the so-called laws of nature are explanations of natural phenomena.”

Pragmatists, avoiding the extremes inherent in supporters of both scientific camps, consider the laws of nature to be a kind of useful aid that helps to describe natural phenomena quite accurately. “I'm interested in the model that most effectively explains the observed facts,” says Paul Steinhardt. – Whether it corresponds to reality is an empty question. Models always simplify reality. In fact, reality itself is not very important to us. We need, first of all, a model that describes the variety of complex phenomena using the simplest concepts that are understandable to our minds and allow us to predict what will happen.” When speaking to students, Steinhardt often cites next example. A football match is being broadcast on TV. In this case, when trying to predict what will happen next, it is best to assume that the colorful spots on the screen are likenesses of football players, and continue to be guided by knowledge of football rules, rather than remembering electronic circuits, electromagnetic fields - everything that generates color signals on the monitor screen. “Reality is not always what you would like, but you would like understanding.”

The simplest laws of nature - such as “the dependence of the force of gravity on the square of the distance” - we can still imagine purely geometrically. But what do you want to do with general relativity or quantum physics? Why on earth does Mother Nature know such complex structures that they are beyond the comprehension of most people? What if we are mistaken in believing that nature follows some formulas? After all, patterns can be discerned in any accumulation of random facts.

Perhaps many of the patterns that we accept as inexorable laws are only a consequence of our ability to look for certain patterns in observable processes. In practice, we are forced to neglect many factors that interfere with the manifestation of these laws. Often laws idealize nature and follow the peculiarities of our thinking. Sometimes we are ready to invent them rather than discover them.

What will happen if the “law of conservation of energy” suddenly ceases to be observed - in the Microworld or in the Macroworld? This won't bother us. We are confident in its inviolability. We'll come up with it on the fly new uniform energy – some kind of “dark vacuum energy” – which relieves us of any doubts. And now the energy balance is restored.

This happened recently, when the mass of the visible Universe turned out to be insufficient for the laws known to us to be observed. Then the logic of reasoning forced us to admit that the universe consists of 95% dark matter and dark energy. Discoveries like these have led some to claim that all physics is a fiction.

Against the background of these doubts, the considerations of “realists” seem to be the most practical. After all, from their point of view, it is possible to explain why some scientific theories are true and others are false. Nature is a ruthless, incorruptible judge, deciding whether a theory is true or not. There are no several different but equally true theories describing a certain phenomenon. One of them inevitably prevails, and the others, despite all their persuasiveness, turn out to be false.

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