Adjectives that have passed from one category to another. Transition of adjectives from one category to another

Let us now turn to cases where the adjective and substantive elements of the same group can more or less freely change places. Couture, who is generally inclined to disparage the distinction between adjectives and nouns, perhaps on account of the slight formal differences between these classes of words in his native language, gives the following examples: un sage sceptique est un sceptique sage "a skeptical sage is a wise skeptic"; un philosophe grec est un grec philosophe “a Greek philosopher is a Greek philosopher” and concludes that the difference here is only in shade; one of the qualities stands out as more significant or more important and interesting in a given situation: after all, it is obvious that a person is first of all a Greek, and then a philosopher, “but nevertheless, we rather talk about Greek philosophers than about philosophical Greeks” (“ Revue de métaphysique et de Morale“, 1912, 9).

It is difficult to say which of these two concepts is more important or interesting. But if we apply the criterion mentioned above, it will become clear why, in choosing between two modes of designation (Greeks who are philosophers, or philosophers who are Greeks), we naturally make philosophers (a more special concept) a noun, and Greeks (a more general concept) as an adjective and we say Greek philosophers (les philosophes grecs), and not vice versa - les Grecs philosophes. A famous German book is called “Griechische Denker” “Greek Thinkers”. “Denkende Griechen” “thinking Greeks” would sound much weaker, since the adjective denkend has a broader and more obscure meaning than the noun Denker. The latter immediately distinguishes those who think deeper and more professionally than ordinary “thinking” people.

One more example. Galsworthy writes somewhere: Having been a Conservative Liberal in politics till well past sixty, it was not until Disraeli's time that he became a Liberal Conservative. liberal conservative." The words conservative and liberal become nouns (and take -s in the plural) when they denote members of two political parties; obviously this is a more specialized concept than that conveyed by these words when they are adjectives 1 .

If we compare two expressions: a poor Russian “poor Russian” and a Russian pauper “Russian beggar”, we see that the noun Russian is more special than the existing adjective, since it means “a man or a woman”. On the other hand, pauper is more specific than poor, which can be applied to a variety of things other than people; pauper has an even more special meaning than a poor person, since the former denotes a person who is entitled to or receives alms 2 .

Other combinations

The rule of greater complexity and greater specialization of nouns, therefore, remains in force in all those cases where it is possible to compare a noun and an adjective with the same meaning; but can this rule be applied to other cases? Can it be said, for example, that in any combination of adjective and noun the former is always less special than the latter? In the vast majority of cases, without a doubt, this criterion remains true, at least on the basis of simple arithmetic calculation. Napoleon the Third: There are few Napoleons, but there are a huge number of persons and objects that are third in order. A new book: The number of new things exceeds the number of existing books. Icelandic peasant: it is true that there are many more peasants in the world than Icelanders, but the adjective Icelandic applicable to a much larger number of objects and persons: Icelandic mountains, Icelandic waterfalls, Icelandic sheep, Icelandic horses, Icelandic sweaters etc. Some of my critics objected to the example I gave of a poor widow; in their opinion, if you replace the word poor with the word rich, it will become unclear who exists more in the world - rich people or widows? However, they lose sight of the fact that the word rich can be combined with the words town, village, country, mine, spoil, store, reward. , attire “clothing”, experience “experience”, sculpture “sculpture”, repast “treat”, cake “cake”, cream “cream”, rime “rhyme”, etc. Atlantic Ocean: the adjective is found, for example, in Shelley's poems in combination with the nouns cloud, wave and islet. Even an adjective rare, although it means “infrequently encountered,” it can be applied to countless objects, people, stones, trees, mental faculties and, thus, does not fall out of the above definition. But, of course, it must be recognized that the numerical criterion is not always applicable, since adjectives and nouns that can be combined very often turn out to be incommensurable: we are talking about gray stone, but who can say which of the words is applicable to a larger number of objects - whether the word grey or word stone? However, applicability to a larger or smaller number of subjects is only one side of the concept of “general” and “special”. And I tend to give more importance to the complex of qualities contained in a noun, as opposed to highlighting one quality in an adjective. The combination of a number of features in a noun is so significant that in very rare cases it is possible to get a complete picture of the noun even by piling one adjective on top of another: there will always remain, as Bertelsen put it, an indefinable x - the core, which can be considered the “carrier” of the selected qualities. This is the basis of the old definition of a noun as a word denoting a substance; Thus, there is some truth in this definition, but not the whole truth. If we make comparisons, then nouns can be likened to the crystallization of qualities that are presented in a liquid state in adjectives.

It should also be mentioned that in modern languages ​​there are a number of nouns that have a highly generalized meaning: thing, body, being. But this “generalized” meaning has a completely different character than the meaning of adjectives: such nouns are very often used to collectively designate a whole series of undeniably material concepts ( all these items - instead of listing books, papers, clothes, etc.). This usage is quite common in philosophical and abstract scientific thinking. In everyday speech, they can be inaccurately used instead of special nouns that are either absent in the language or forgotten (cf. English thingummybob, German Dingsda). In other cases they are rare, except in combination with adjectives, where they are rather a kind of grammatical means for substantivizing adjectives, as, for example, in English. one. (Ones in the combination the new ones is a replacement for the noun mentioned above; in the combination her young ones, if we are talking about a bird, it makes up for the absence of a noun corresponding to the word children “children”). This determines their use in complex pronouns: English. something “something”, nothing “nothing”, French. quelquechose "something", Danish. ingenting, English somebody “someone”, etc. On the other hand, if a language has a way of forming adjectives, very specialized adjectives may appear in it, for example: a pink-eyed cat “a cat with conjunctivitis of the eyes”, a ten-roomed house “ house of ten rooms." These examples were put forward against my theory: there are many more cats than living creatures with conjunctivitis, etc. However, such an objection, it seems to me, does not refute the theory as a whole in the form in which it was presented here: it must be remembered that the genuine the adjective in the examples given is pink and ten respectively.

From what has been said, it becomes clear, moreover, that the so-called degrees of comparison (greater “more”, greatest “largest”), as a rule, are inherent only to adjectives: they can deal with only one quality. The more specialized the concept, the less the need for degrees of comparison. And where we find the use of the comparative and superlative forms of nouns, we find that they also highlight only one quality and thus convey the same concept as if they were formed from real adjectives. Wed. gr. basileuteros, basileutatos “more regal,” “most regal” (for other examples, see Delbrück, Vergleichende Syntax der indogermanischen Sprachen, Straüburg, 1893, 1. 415), Hung. szarnbr “donkey”, szambrabb “stupid”, rуka “fox”, rуkabb “cunning”. Wed. also Finnish ranta “shore”, rannempi “closer to the shore”, syksy “autumn”, syksymднд “later autumn”. See also Paul, Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte, ed. 7, Halle, 1909, § 250.

One final note. We cannot, based on the complexity of qualities or on the specialization of designation, decide in each specific case whether we have a noun or an adjective: this can be established on the basis of formal criteria, which are different in different languages. This chapter has only attempted to establish whether there is anything in the nature of things and in our thinking that would justify the division into nouns and adjectives, characteristic of so many languages. Of course, it is impossible to draw a clear demarcation line between these two categories of words, as logicians would like to do: those who create language, namely ordinary speakers, are not such precise thinkers. But they are not without a certain logic; and however vague the contours may sometimes be, the basic line of classification into nouns and adjectives, expressed in grammatical forms, will always have a logical basis. This is the case in this case: nouns in general are characterized by the fact that they have a more specialized meaning, and adjectives - by the fact that they have a more general meaning, since the former connote a certain set of qualities, and the latter indicate the possession of only one quality 1 .

Qualitative, relative and possessive adjectives in modern Russian are not closed groups. The grammatical boundary between them is fluid, since the features by which we distinguish one category from another change.

In the textbook “Russian Language”, grade 6, we read: “Relative and possessive adjectives can turn into qualitative ones if they are used in a figurative meaning” (golden ring (rel.) - Golden autumn(quality), bear's den (attractive) - bear's gait (quality). This information is insufficient and incomplete. In fact, possessive adjectives can also turn into relative adjectives: fox hole (possessive) - fox fur coat (relative). And even qualitative adjectives turn into relative ones: sour berry (qualitative) - sour reaction (relative). Qualitative adjectives with a figurative meaning are more often used in a scientific style (voiceless consonants), while relative and possessive adjectives are used in an artistic style.

Exercise 1

Conclusion (secret) 5: adjectives can move from one category to another: relative - into qualitative, possessive - into relative and qualitative, qualitative - into relative.

Transition of relative adjectives into qualitative ones

Transition of possessive adjectives into relative adjectives

Transition of possessive adjectives into qualitative ones

Transition of qualitative adjectives into relative ones

Some adjectives can be used in a figurative meaning and acquire characteristics that are not characteristic of words of their category. As a result, there may be cases transition of adjectives from one category to another. Thus, possessive adjectives (mostly with the suffix -j) can go into the category of relative and qualitative, relative - into the category of qualitative, qualitative (rarely) - into the category of relative.

At transition from one category to another Not only the meanings change, but also the grammatical features of adjectives. So, for example, qualitative adjectives, when used in relative and possessive meanings, lose the ability to form simple forms and adverbs in -o, -e, and relative adjectives, becoming qualitative, on the contrary, acquire this ability. Wed: tripping(quality) - the gait is easy, breathing is easy, But: light industry(rel.); wooden cabinet(rel.), but: wooden gait(quality) - the gait is wooden, the look is dull, wooden.

Adjectives (most often relative) can sometimes become nouns, i.e. capable of being substantiated.

Moving into the class of nouns, adjectives lose their basic meaning of quality and acquire the meaning of objectivity, which is the semantic basis of nouns.

The degree of substantivization of adjectives can be different. Thus, some adjectives (most often relative) have completely turned into nouns, losing the ability to change according to gender (universe, mayor, comma, pavement, tailor, pedigree, etc.). Their connection with adjectives in terms of modern language lost. Such formations are unmotivated. Other adjectives can be used both as nouns (The doctor patiently listened to all the patient’s complaints) and as adjectives (The doctor examined the sick child). Such adjectives are the adjectives - greyhound, bay, horse, patrol, military, bathroom, curve, dance and many others. Such formations are motivated. In this case, we can talk about the degree of substantivation

Individual qualitative adjectives also move into the class of nouns, but at the same time they dramatically change their lexical meaning. Wed, for example: Between the roast and blancmange, Tsimlyansko is already being carried (P.). - The soldiers huddled together and met the advancing Turks with hot rifle fire (Garsh.). Or: Somehow he fell ill with pneumonia (Ch.). - And on a ship, and even in a combat situation, we are very modest, except for light wine, the auditor will never put anything on the table (Step.).

Numeral as part of speech. Classification of numerals by structure.

Numeral- a significant part of speech, denoting abstract numbers, the number of objects or their order when counting. In a sentence, numerals serve as the subject or object, as well as the determiner.

The class of numerals is characterized by special forms of declension and word formation. Numerals have the ability to combine as a quantitative determinant with nouns, forming syntactically indecomposable phrases with them.

Words of indefinite value like a lot, a little, how much, not at all are considered in Russian as pronouns, if they answer the question with numerals (how much, not at all) And How adverbs, if they answer the question with adverbs (little, a lot).

Number categories according to structure:simple(there is only one root in the morphemic structure : one, twelve, thirty), complex(the morphemic structure has two roots and two endings: fifty, seven hundred, twoe stAnd) ,composite(composed of several numerals: one hundred forty-two, three hundred eighty-five, two thirds).

The grammatical category of gender is inherent only in some numerals. The numeral has masculine, feminine and neuter meanings one (one hit, one meeting, one letter). The numerals have the meaning of masculine and feminine two, both, one and a half:(two fighters, two friends, both boys, both girls, one and a half meters, one and a half pages). The feminine gender has a numeral thousand. Masculine numerals million, billion. All ordinal numbers also have dependent forms: first lesson, first book, first date.

Only ordinal numbers have number forms: fifth row, fifth rows. Numeral one has the shape alone in the plural for use with nouns pl.t.: one gate, one day. In other cases, the word one in the plural form is not a numeral. We were left alone.

Case forms are inherent in all numerals without exception. It is the presence of the grammatical category of case that makes it possible to classify numerals as nominal parts of speech.

The boundary between lexico-grammatical groups of adjectives is fluid, so some categories can transform into others. Let's imagine this in reference notation:

Relative – qualitative value:

· stone house"made of stone" - heart of stone"merciless, cruel"

· gold watch - golden hands

· steel springs - nerves of steel

· raspberry compote – raspberry vest

Qualitative – relative value:

· deaf person - deaf sound"characterized by phonetic deafness"

· fast step - fast train

Possessives - relative meaning:

· fox hole - fox fur coat

· wolf's paw - wolf pack

Questions for control:

1. Name the characteristics of qualitative adjectives.

2. How do qualitative adjectives differ from relative adjectives?

3. What is the peculiarity of possessive adjectives?

4. Is the boundary between lexico-grammatical groups of adjectives fluid? Prove it.

Exercises

1. Determine the category of highlighted adjectives:

1. The night was great clean the moon, and by morning the first frost had settled. (M. Prishvin)

2. There were a lot of funny things in the house and already unnecessary of things. (K. Paustovsky)

3. Each face of the crystal bears a variety of sculptural decorations. (A. Fersman)

4. From pelican the tail of a thick perch protruded from its beak. (K. Paustovsky)

5. On the upper side the leaves are already dry, on the lower side velvet the dew is held on by small beads. (M. Prishvin)

6. Earth, loosened ant work, covered with lingonberries on top. (M. Prishvin)

7. Yes, vital This man's path... was not strewn with roses. (K. Paustovsky)

8. Inexperienced a person will say that all nightingales sing the same. (V. Peskov)

9. ... Until the very Vasinogo After leaving, we often talked to him about this piano. (K. Paustovsky)

10. Meshchora... has the most lakes with black water. (K. Paustovsky)

11. From the fields, from the meadows... fogs rose and melted into heavenly azure (M. Prishvin)

12. The dark and windless September night surrounded me. (K. Paustovsky)

2. Determine the lexical and grammatical categories of adjectives. Why are adjectives given in phrases?

Hometown, faithful companion, bear's paw, light desk, bear's gait, morning walk, hunting rifle, lively conversation, neat comrade, racing boat, fishing boat. Kolya's desk, a true story, a joyful smile, a fox hole, a stone house, a bear's trail, a shepherd's song, a hare's nature, hot tea, a crystal vase, January frost, a warm evening, a wolfish appetite, grandmother's fur coat, a dense forest, a distant lake, hungry wolves , Birch Grove, wonderful essay, country walk, sunbeam, sunny smile, golden character, steel feather, golden heart.

3. Determine whether the adjectives formed from these words are qualitative or relative. Make up phrases.

Factory, school, iron, shore, road, station, Railway, Kyiv, seven years old, three, always, married, pelvis and thigh.

4. Replace one of the nouns with a possessive adjective.

The footprints of a wolf and a hare, the skin of a fox and a squirrel, the tail of a peacock and a crow, the fur of a sable and marten.

5. Replace the nouns in the genitive case with possessive adjectives. Is this always possible?

· Bear training……………………………………………..

· Bear's den …………………………………………………..

· Bearskin ……………………………………………………

· Bear tracks………………………………………………………

· Treatment of the bear…………………………………………….

· Growling of a bear…………………………………………….

6.What's extra? Why?

1) Distant, beautiful, hare, strong;

2) Evening, heavy, steel, factory;

3) Birch, grandmother, bird, fathers;

4) Turkish, factory, soft, iron;

5) Weak, terracotta, spring, daring.

Determine the categories of adjectives and indicate what phenomenon we are observing here.

golden ring, golden heart;

red rose, Red Square;

wolf tail, wolf laws;

platinum bracelet, platinum hair color;

modern era, modern clothing;

arctic fox fur, arctic fox collar.

The following morphological categories are characteristic of adjectives in the Russian language:

Completeness/brevity;

Degrees of comparison;

When forming a short form:

1. Special endings are added to the base of a qualitative adjective - zero (m.r.), -and I(f.r.), -o/-e(s.r.), -s/-s(plural): cheerful - cheerful, cheerful A, cheerful O, cheerful s; blue – blue, blue I, syn e, syn And.

2. If at the end of the stem there is a combination of consonants with /n/ or /k/, then when the masculine singular form is formed, a “fluent” vowel appears: thin is thin, full is full, bitter is bitter, difficult is difficult. Before other consonants, a “runaway” vowel usually does not appear: fast, dark, fat(exception: long, kisel, oster, light, hiter).

3. For adjectives with stems - enn- (painful, artificial, frivolous, numerous etc.) in the masculine form truncation occurs - n : illness n (cf.: illness NN ah, illness NN s), art n. For adjectives immoral, timely, peculiar and other acceptable options: responsible and responsible, proper and proper, Moreover, the truncated short form of the masculine gender is used more and more often.

Most qualitative adjectives have both forms - full and short.

However, many qualitative adjectives have only full form, from which it is impossible to form a short form. Similar adjectives include:

1. names of some colors: brown, coffee, cream, as well as animal colors: black, brown, piebald and etc.;

2. words with subjective evaluation suffixes: long, green, plump;

3. words with suffixes –sk-, -ov-/-ev, -n-(by origin - from relative adjectives): brotherly greetings, friendly meeting, advanced worker, fighting guy, slanderous letter;

4. Some other types of qualitative adjectives: old, empty, former, greyhound, alien and etc.

Short form only have adjectives much, should, glad, necessary, too big, too small, alone (alone), radekhonek (radeshenek) and etc.

The short and full forms of the adjective differ in their morphological and syntactic features.

For example:

1. Full form:

by numbers: hot - hot

by birth: hot – hot – hotter

by case:

AND. hot tea

R. hot tea

D. hot tea

IN. hot tea

T. hot tea

P. about hot tea

Syntactic role:

Our family likes to drink hot tea in the morning.

Next summer will be hot.

2. Short form:

by numbers:beautiful - beautiful

by birth: beautiful - beautiful - beautiful

Syntactic role:

Winter evening was beautiful.

Questions for control:

1. What adjectives cannot be formed into a short form?

2. How is the short form of adjectives formed with a stem on –n?

3. How do the full and short forms of an adjective change?

adjectives

one category

to another.

Qualitative adjectives

Relative adjectives

They denote a feature of an object that may be to a greater or lesser extent. Answer the questions: WHAT? WHICH? WHICH? WHICH?

Possessive adjectives

They denote a feature of an object that cannot be manifested to a greater or lesser extent. Answer the questions: WHAT? WHICH? WHICH? WHICH?

They form degrees of comparison and a short form. Can be combined with adverbs VERY, EXTREMELY, TOO.

They indicate that something belongs to a person or an animal and answer the questions WHOSE? WHOSE? WHOSE? WHOSE?

Indicate the material from which the item is made; spatial, temporal characteristics of an object.

Form complex adjectives by repetition and adjectives with the prefix NOT-

They have the suffixes –OV-/ -EV-, -IN-/-UN-, -IY-/ -Y-

They do not have degrees of comparison, short form and do not combine with the adverb VERY

Masculine adjectives in Name and Vin. singular cases They have a zero ending, and adjectives cf. and wives genders in singular and plural have the endings of short adjectives.

What does a writer’s image consist of? From details and everyday phrases that, as if by magic, become unusual. This is how K.I. Chukovsky writes about this in his book about Chekhov: “Everything in life was so curious to him that with hunting passion he tracked down every seemingly ordinary fact of the everyday life surrounding him: and the fact that the pigeons were above the dovecote gold from the sun; and the fact that the geese on the green meadow stretch out in a long and white garland; and the fact that the Sevastopol Bay looks as if alive, with many blue, blue, turquoise And fiery eye..." (According to Z. Paperny).

If you're racing down the hallway on a bicycle, And dad comes out of the bathroom to meet you for a walk, Don't turn into the kitchen: There's a solid refrigerator in the kitchen. Better brake like dad. Dad soft. He will forgive.

• Iron hoop (a hoop made of iron) is a relative adjective.
• Iron will (strong, firm will) is a qualitative adjective. His will is iron; He has the most iron will; I definitely promise.

• Heavy burden (a burden that is heavy)
• Weightlifting (exercises or competitions in lifting weights: weights, barbells)
• Simple task (easy task)
• Simple sentence (sentence with one grammatical basis)
• Straight road (flat road)
• Direct object (addition in the Vin. case without a preposition)

There are no impassable boundaries between the categories of adjectives - with the development of a new meaning, the adjective can move into another category.

qualitative adj. Relative adj.

Possessive adj.

• Sunlight - sunny smile
• Pearl necklace – pearl teeth
• A soulful person is a soulache.

Silver voiced wheat bearish ambulance sheep turtle canine wolfish