Lecture notes on the discipline “Psychology” for full-time and part-time students. Lecture notes on general psychology

It is characterized by a variety of approaches to the essence of the psyche and the transformation of psychology into a multidisciplinary applied field of knowledge serving the interests of practical human activity. Freud and emphasized the role of social and cultural determinants in the life of the individual and society. The main disadvantage of behaviorism is the insufficient consideration of the complexity of mental activity, excessive convergence of the psyche of animals and humans, ignoring the processes of consciousness of higher forms of learning, creativity, personal self-determination, etc....

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Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine

Priazov State Technical University

Department of Sociology and Social Work

V.V. Maslova

Lecture notes on the discipline

"Psychology"

for full-time and part-time students

technical specialties

Mariupol 2009

Psychology. Lecture notes for full-time and part-time students of technical specialties. / PSTU. Caf. Sociology and social work, IAP; comp. V.V. Maslova. – Mariupol.2009.- 92 p.

The textbook has been prepared in accordance with state requirements for the mandatory minimum content and level of training for higher school graduates in the cycle “Social and humanitarian disciplines”. The proposed course of lectures contains basic psychological concepts and categories, as well as their characteristics. Particular attention is paid to personality psychology; the psychological mechanisms of personality formation and its interaction with other people are revealed.

Intended for students of technical specialties.

Reviewer: M.D. Lapina, senior pr.

Comp. V.V. Maslova, st.pr.

Responsible for the issue: V.V. Kharabet, associate professor, candidate of pedagogical sciences,

Head of the Department of Sociology and

Social work

Approved

At a department meeting

"Sociology and social work"

Protocol No. 3 of October 16, 2009

Approved

At a meeting of the academic council

Faculty of Engineering and Pedagogy

Protocol No. dated 2009

introduction

The peculiarities of the current stage of development of our society determine the need for a radical improvement in the training of specialists, their mastery of the basics of psychological knowledge and their successful application in practice.

The textbook has been prepared for a wide range of students, regardless of professional direction and specialty, and is intended for concentrated study and systematization of educational material in the discipline “Psychology”.

The manual is a compact outline of the theory and practice of psychology. The educational material of the manual is deprofessionalized, presented in a concise and accessible form, both in content and style of presentation.

Goals and objectives of studying the discipline “Psychology”:

Get an idea of ​​the nature of the human psyche, the relationship between natural and social factors in its formation, as well as how a person becomes aware of the world around him and himself;

Learn to give a psychological description of a person, as well as explain one’s own mental processes, properties, states;

Master the simplest techniques of their mental self-regulation;

Learn to understand the peculiarities of interaction between people in the process of communication and joint activities;

Master techniques that increase the effectiveness of communication.

The sequence of presentation of topics in the proposed course of lectures reflects the logic of the future specialist’s perception of a new range of problems. The manual includes five topics, relatively independent in content, but interconnected.

For the convenience of mastering the course, each of the program topics is divided into several relatively independent questions, which can become the subject of presentations at seminar classes or serve as the topic of abstracts.

The range of problems discussed in the proposed course of lectures is specified in the list of skills that precedes each topic.

Conscious and deeper assimilation of the material will be facilitated by searching for answers to test questions and assignments proposed for each topic. In this case, it is advisable to use the sources given in the bibliography for each topic.

LECTURE 1

^ INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

1. Subject, principles and branches of psychology.

2. Stages of formation and directions of psychological science.

3. Methods of psychological research.

4. The concept of the psyche. Classification of mental phenomena.

5. Consciousness as the highest stage of mental development.

6. Special states of the human psyche and consciousness.

Basic Concepts : psychology, principles of psychology, directions of psychology, methods of psychology, mental phenomena, consciousness, conscious, subconscious, unconscious.

After studying this topic, you should be able to:

Formulate the subject and objectives of psychology as a science;

Explain the methodological principles of psychology;

Highlight the main stages in the development of psychological science;

Identify the place of psychology in the system of human sciences;

List the branches and main directions of psychological science;

Analyze the methods of psychology and the conditions for their correct application;

Reveal the essence of the concept of psyche, list the main forms of manifestation of the psyche;

Explain the relationship between the conscious, subconscious and unconscious.

^ 1. Subject, principles and branches of psychology

Psychology - the science of the general mental patterns of human interaction with the environment. Psychology (psyche - soul, logos - science) - studies the world of mental phenomena, processes and states, conscious or unconscious of a person.

Generally methodology (from the Greek methods - the path of research, knowledge, logos - teaching) determines the principles and techniques that guide a person in his activities. Domestic psychology identifies the following as methodological principles of materialistic psychology:

1) The principle of determinism means that the psyche is determined by the way of life and is rebuilt with changes in the way of life.

^ 2) The principle of the relationship between the psyche and activity , the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity means that consciousness is manifested and formed in the process of human activity.

^ 3) The principle of development of the psyche, consciousness in activity means that the psyche and consciousness are considered as a product of development and the result of activity (game, educational, labor, etc.).

^ 4) The principle of studying the human psyche in the relationship of biological and social factors ;

5) Personal approach means that when studying any mental phenomena of a person (properties, states, processes), the inclusion of the phenomenon in the structure of the integral personality is taken into account.

Psychology is closely interconnected with other sciences, occupying an important place in the system of human sciences. So, for a long time, being one of the sections philosophy, psychology inevitably took from this science fundamentally important theoretical principles that determine the approach to solving problems. Thus, philosophy is the methodological basis of psychology. The connection between psychology and natural sciences– biology, physiology, chemistry, physics, etc., with the help of which you can study the physiological and biological processes of the brain that underlie the psyche. Psychology is being brought closer to humanities(sociology, history, linguistics, art history, etc.) study of the interaction of the individual and his immediate environment; interest in the peculiarities of the mental, spiritual makeup of a person in various historical eras; the role of language in the cultural and mental development of a person, the problem of creativity. No less obvious is the connection between psychology and pedagogy. Effective training and education can only be based on knowledge of the patterns according to which the human psyche develops. The connections between psychology and medicine. These sciences find common points of contact in the study of the problem of mental disorders, in the psychological substantiation of the peculiarities of interaction between doctor and patient, in the diagnosis and treatment of a number of diseases. The relationship between psychology and technical sciences manifests itself, on the one hand, in identifying the optimal psychological conditions for interaction between man and machine, on the other hand, in the development of technical means and instruments for studying the manifestations of the psyche.

^ Branches of psychology

Zoopsychology- studies the characteristics of the psyche of animals.

Developmental and educational psychology- studies the psychological characteristics of people of different ages, as well as patterns of personality development in the process of training and education

^ Social Psychology - studies the socio-psychological manifestations of a person’s personality, his relationships with people, socio-psychological manifestations in large groups.

^ Labor psychology - examines the psychological characteristics of human labor activity, patterns of development of labor skills.

Engineering psychology- studies the patterns of processes of interaction between man and modern technology.

^ Medical psychology - studies the psychological characteristics of the doctor’s activities and the patient’s behavior, develops psychological methods of treatment and psychotherapy

Pathopsychology- studies deviations in the development of the psyche, the breakdown of the psyche in various forms of brain pathology.

^ Legal psychology - studies the psychological characteristics of the behavior of participants in criminal proceedings, psychological problems of behavior and the formation of the criminal’s personality.

^ Differentiation of psychology on the industry is complemented by counter integration process, as a result of which psychology connects with almost all sciences: through engineering psychology - with technical sciences; through educational psychology - with pedagogy; through social psychology - with social and social sciences.

^ 2. Stages of formation and direction

psychological science

The formation of psychological science can be divided into 4 stage:

Stage 1– psychology as the science of the soul. This definition of psychology was given more than 2 thousand years ago. They tried to explain all the incomprehensible phenomena in human life by the presence of a soul.

Stage 2– psychology as the science of consciousness. It appears in the 17th century in connection with the development of natural sciences. The ability to think, feel, desire was called consciousness.

Stage 3– psychology as the science of behavior. It appears at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th century. The task of psychology is to conduct experiments and observe what can be seen - human behavior, actions, reactions.

Stage 4– psychology as a science that studies the patterns, manifestations and mechanisms of the psyche.

Since ancient times, needs public life forced a person to take into account the peculiarities of the mental makeup of people. The first psychological ideas emerged in the ancient world in connection with the attempts of thinkers of that time to answer the question: what is the soul? At the same time, different approaches to the study of the essence of the soul emerged - materialistic and idealistic.

Proponent of the first approach Democritus(c. 460-370 BC) argued that the soul consists of mobile atoms that set the body in motion. With the death of the body, the soul also dies.

Plato(428-348 BC), on the contrary, argued that the soul is immortal. The goal of the soul is the knowledge of ideas that exist eternally and in themselves, forming a special world opposed to the world of matter.

The ideas of ancient philosophers were systematized and developed Aristotle(384-322 BC) in the treatise “On the Soul”. This treatise was the first psychological work proper, and therefore Aristotle is often called the founder of psychology. In his view, the soul is the incorporeal essence of a living body, through which a person feels and thinks.

In the Middle Ages, as a result of the strengthening of religion, the soul was viewed mainly as a divine, supernatural principle that guides man in his search for the highest meaning of life. At the same time, knowledge is accumulating about the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the human body as one of the foundations of the psyche. In this regard, the activities of Arab scientists should be especially noted Ibn-Sins(Avicenna, 980-1037), Ibn Rushda(Averroes, 1126-1198), as well as an outstanding figure of the Renaissance Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519).

The second stage in the development of psychology is associated with the development of natural sciences in the 17th century, when leading scientists of that time tried to form new ideas about the world and man, considering psychology as the science of consciousness. Thus, the French scientist R. Descartes(1596-1650) in his works attempted to reveal the mechanisms of human behavior, using the laws of mechanics as an analogue and introducing a new concept - reflex. B. Spinoza(1632-1677) and G. Leibniz(1646-1716), who developed questions about the relationship between the physiological and mental, as well as J. Locke(1632-1704), who introduced into psychology the concept of association (from the Latin associatio - connection, connection) - a connection between phenomena in which the occurrence of one of them causes the appearance of another. It was this concept that formed the basis of associative psychology that emerged in the 18th century ( D. Gartley, 1705-1757), in which it was argued that the nervous system obeys physical laws and, therefore, the phenomena of consciousness are formed through the association (mechanical connection) of simpler elements. During the same period G. Konisky(1717-1795) pointed out the active nature of the psyche’s reflection objective reality. G. S. Skovoroda(1722-1794) considered a person’s self-knowledge of himself, his essence, to be a necessary condition for knowing reality.

The beginning of the third stage - the formation of psychology as an independent experimental science - can be considered the 60-70s of the 19th century, when experimentation came to psychology. The development of experimental psychology is associated primarily with the German scientist W.Wundtom(3832-1920), who opened the world's first psychological laboratory in 1879.

Based on accumulated experimental data, works I.M.Sechenova (1829-1905), I.P. Pavlova (1849-1936), Z. Freud(1856-1939) and many other outstanding scientists concluded that it is impossible to limit the subject of psychology to consciousness alone and to use associations as a universal category that explains all mental activity.

This led to the emergence in the 20th century. several new areas of psychology, each of which in its own way determined what this science should study: behavior, the unconscious, etc.

^ Main directions of psychological science

One of the most significant areas for the development of psychology in the 20th century is psychoanalysis, the founder of which is considered to be the Austrian psychologist and psychiatrist Z. Freud.

Psychoanalysis is based on the idea that human behavior is determined not only by his consciousness, but also by unconscious drives and desires, to which Freud attributed, first of all, the desire for love and at the same time for death and destruction. These drives are concentrated in a special structural formation of the psyche, called “Id” (It). Secondary layer of the psyche - "Ego" (I)– called upon to balance the drives of the id with the requirements real world, presented in ” Super-Ego” (Super-I)- bearer of moral standards. Since the demands of the Id and the Super-Ego are incompatible, the Ego is in a state of conflict, tension, from which it is saved with the help of special psychological defenses (repression, projection, sublimation, etc.).

Doctrine 3. Freud was developed by his students. Thus, the central idea of ​​A. Adler (1870-1937), the creator of individual psychology, is the thesis about a person’s unconscious desire for perfection, which is determined by the experience of a feeling of inferiority and the need to compensate for it.

According to K. Jung (1875-1961), according to the principles of analytical psychology he created, the mental development of the individual as a whole is determined by the collective unconscious (archetypes) that capture the experience of humanity.

An influential trend in psychology was behaviorism(from the English Behavior - behavior), the founder of which is considered to be the American researcher D. Watson (1875-1958). Watson's scientific program was based on the S R scheme, according to which an external influence, or stimulus (S), gives rise to a certain behavior of the organism, or response (R). This led to the conclusion: it is enough to select the right stimulus to obtain the required behavior. Such concepts of the inner, mental world of a person as consciousness and experience were ignored and considered unscientific.

Another area of ​​psychological science is Gestalt psychology(from German Gestalt - image, form). The emergence of this direction is associated primarily with the names of German scientists M. Wertheimer (1880-1943), K. Koffka (1886-1941), W. Köhler (1887-1967), who, in contrast to the provisions of associative psychology, put forward the idea of ​​​​the integrity of the image, properties which cannot be deduced from the properties of its individual parts. Thus, M. Wertheimer showed the possibility of perceiving movement in its actual absence. In his experiments, two segments located at a distance from each other were alternately illuminated and darkened. It turned out that as the time intervals between flashes decreased, the perception of two segments was replaced by the perception of the movement of one segment. (This phenomenon, called the φ-phenomenon, is used, for example, in illuminated advertising.)

The main task cognitive(from Latin Cognilio - knowledge) psychology, which arose in the 60s of the 20th century. as a direction of psychological science, there was evidence of the decisive role of knowledge in human mental development. Representatives of this direction (J. Piaget, J. Bruner, A. Paivio, U. Neisser, L. Festnnger, etc.) focused their efforts on the study of mental, primarily cognitive, processes, which, by analogy with a computer, were considered as sequential collection blocks and information processing. As a result, the most important properties of cognitive activity were identified (dependence on the external environment, selectivity, etc.). One of the main concepts of cognitive psychology is scheme(internal program for collecting and processing information). The scheme determines the development of all cognitive processes (perception, memory, thinking, etc.) just as the genotype determines the structure of the organism.

One of the leading areas of modern psychological science is humanistic psychology, which, according to one of its founders, A. Maslow (1908-1970), represents a third force that opposes behaviorism and psychoanalysis. In contrast to behaviorism, which is focused on the analysis of individual events, representatives of humanistic psychology K. Rogers (1902-1987), G. Allport (1897-1967) and others consider the personality as a single whole. In contrast to the psychoanalytic approach, the subject of humanistic psychology is a psychologically healthy person. At the same time, humanistic psychology asserts that a person is initially kind or, in extreme cases, neutral; aggression and violence arise as a result of environmental influences. The highest fundamental human needs are the need for self-realization (self-actualization) or, according to V. Frankl (born 1905), the founder of logotherapy, to find one’s own meaning. In accordance with these ideas, approaches to ensuring the mental well-being of the individual are being developed within the framework of humanistic psychology.

In the 60s of the 20th century, another direction emerged - transpersonal psychology that studies the ultimate capabilities of the human psyche from non-traditional positions. The main theoretical sources of transpersonal psychology are psychoanalysis and Eastern philosophical systems, the principles of which are formulated on the basis of ideas about the energetic nature of the world. At the center of this direction are the so-called altered states of consciousness, which can be achieved with the help of specially organized intense breathing (S. Grof) and special, transcendental music.

In the 20th century, domestic psychology followed a special path of development based on the philosophy of dialectical materialism. The development of ideas about the nature of the psyche that have developed in Russian psychology was significantly influenced by the work of such outstanding scientists as I. M. Sechenov. I. P. Pavlov, V. M. Bekhterev (1875-1927), L. S. Vygotsky (1896-1934), A. N. Leontiev (1903-1979), S. L. Rubinstein (1889-1960) and etc.

Thus, L. S. Vygotsky was the creator cultural-historical the concept of human mental development, which reveals the mechanisms of formation of higher mental functions (logical memory, abstract thinking, etc.) in the process of human mastery of culture.

A. N. Leontiev, a student and follower of L. S. Vygotsky, focused on studying the structure and functioning of the mental reflection of reality in the process of activity.

In line with activity theory, the concept was developed gradual formation P. Ya. Galperin (1902-1988), the practical implementation of which makes it possible to increase the effectiveness of training.

S. L. Rubinstein fundamentally investigated the relationship between internal and external, formulating the principle determinism when explaining mental phenomena.

The outstanding Ukrainian psychologist G. S. Kostyuk (1899-1982) considered a mental phenomenon as a special type of activity, and not the activity of the brain, but of a person who more or less consciously creates his own psyche.

IN last years In domestic psychology, attempts are being made to combine philosophical, cultural and psychological approaches to determining the essence of psychological phenomena of human existence (A. V. Kirichuk, V. A. Romenets, etc.). Moreover, the emergence and development of all mental phenomena are determined by the interaction of situational, motivational and other components of the act as a unit of analysis of a person’s personality.

^ 3. Methods of psychological research

Methodological principles are embodied in special methods of psychology, with the help of which essential facts, patterns and mechanisms of the psyche are revealed.

Methods used in psychological research are divided into four groups :

^ 1. Organizational methods

Comparative method- (the “cross-section” method) consists of comparing different groups of people by age, education, activity and communication (students and workers).

^ Longitudinal method - (“longitudinal section” method) consists of repeated examinations of the same individuals over a long period of time (students over five years of study).

^ Complex method - a method of study in which representatives of various sciences participate in the study, which allows one to establish connections and dependencies between phenomena of various kinds.

^ 2. Empirical methods

Observation– deliberate and recorded perception of external manifestations of the psyche. Introspection- observation of a person’s own mental phenomena.

Experiment– purposeful change of certain factors and registration of changes in the state and behavior of the person being studied, differs from observation by the intervention of the researcher.

Test- a system of tasks that allows you to measure the level of development of a certain quality (property) of a person. They are divided into achievement tests, intelligence tests, and creativity tests.

Questionnaire- presents a questionnaire to obtain answers to a pre-compiled system of questions, serves to obtain primary socio-psychological information.

Sociometry- a method of psychological research into interpersonal relationships in a group in order to determine the structure of relationships and psychological compatibility.

Interview- a method consisting in collecting information obtained in the form of answers to posed, usually pre-formulated, questions.

Conversation- provides for direct or indirect receipt of psychological information through verbal communication.

3. Methodsdata processing: quantitative and qualitative analysis.

^ 4. Interpretive methods :

Genetic method (analysis of material in terms of development, highlighting individual stages),

Structural method (establishing structural connections between mental characteristics).

^ 4. The concept of the psyche.

classification of mental phenomena

Word psyche (Greek for “soul”) has a dual meaning.

One value - the meaning of the essence of a thing. The psyche is a reflection of the objective world in its connections and relationships, it is a virtual compression of nature. Another meaning associated with the problem of the substrate of the psyche. Many people hear and say: “The soul has sunk into the heels,” “The excitement of the soul.” In these statements there is some movement, some substrate of movement. As some physicists suggest, these could be microleptons - the smallest nuclear particles.

The connection between the psyche and brain activity is beyond doubt: inferiority of the brain leads to inferiority of the psyche. But the independence of the mental and physiological processes of the brain has also been proven - theory of psychophysiological parallelism, according to which the mental and physiological constitute 2 series of phenomena that correspond to each other, but never influence each other.

There are other theories about the connection between mental and physiological processes. ^ Mechanical identity theory states that mental processes are physiological processes, the brain secretes the psyche, i.e. the psyche is identified with nervous processes. Unity theory states that mental and physiological processes arise simultaneously, but they are qualitatively different, that the psyche is a systemic quality of the brain.

But let us note that the human psyche is not given to a person in a ready-made form from birth, it develops only in the process of communication and interaction with other people. The human psyche manifests itself in various forms - mental phenomena.

^ Classification of mental phenomena

All mental phenomena are divided into three groups :

1) mental processes,

2) mental properties of the individual,

3) mental states of the individual.

^ Mental process – an act of mental activity that has an object of reflection and a regulatory function. Human mental activity is a set of mental processes.

^ Mental properties of personality - typical for this person features of his psyche. Mental properties include: temperament, character, abilities, orientation.

^ Mental condition - this is a temporary uniqueness of mental activity, determined by the content of the activity and the person’s attitude towards this activity (for example, irritation).

Mental processes, states and properties of a person are a single manifestation of his psyche.

black beetle Yu.G., Ph.D. psychol. sciences, assistant professor pnpu them. .D.Ushinsky

Lecture notes on psychology

content module І . Psychology as a science. Psychology of Personality

Topic 1. Subject, tasks and branches of psychology

Subject of psychology

Psychology(from the Greek “psyche” - soul and “logos” - science) - a science that studies the patterns of development and functioning of the psyche. Psyche- the ability of the brain to display the objective world, build its subjective picture and, on its basis, regulate human behavior and activity. The psyche reveals itself in various mental phenomena.

Firstly, this mental processes. Among them are those with the help of which a person understands the world ( educationalprocesses: sensations, perception, attention, memory, thinking, imagination, speech), and can also express his attitude to the world, manage his own actions ( emotional-volitionalprocesses: emotions, feelings, will).

Secondly, this mental properties(stubbornness, efficiency, selfishness, etc.) and mental states(excitement, interest, melancholy, etc.).

They define how situational, so sustainable(i.e. typical for a particular person) behavior. Mental processes, properties, states of a person, his communication and activity constitute a single whole, which is called vital activity.

Psychology, like any science, explores a certain range of issues. The main ones:

How a person navigates the world around him (study of perception);

How does the acquired experience influence it (study of the process of acquiring knowledge and skills);

How he remembers and reproduces what he remembers (memory research);

How does he decide? life tasks(study of thinking and intellectual abilities);

How one experiences one’s own relationship to certain objects; to the process of satisfying current needs (study of feelings and emotions);

How to control one’s own psyche and behavior (study of will, self-regulation processes);

Why directs activity towards certain objects (motivation research), etc.

For a long time, psychology was not an independent science, but developed in line with other sciences. The first scientific ideas about the psyche arose in Ancient world(Egypt, China, India, Greece, Rome). They were reflected in the works of philosophers, doctors, and teachers. We can distinguish a number of stages in the development of the scientific understanding of the psyche and the subject of psychology as a science.

On first stage (6th – 5th centuries BC – 17th century AD), phenomena studied by psychology were designated by the general term “ soul" and were the subject of one of the branches of philosophy called “psychology”. Modern researchers debate the origin of this term. There are two main versions. First, it was invented in the 16th century. either F. Melanchthon, or O. Kassman, or R. Goklenius (the latter’s book, published in 1590, was called “Psychology”). Secondly, this term was introduced into use in the 17th century by the German philosopher H. von Wolf.

Second The stage of development of scientific psychology begins in the 17th century. The progress of natural science, reflected in the works of philosophers R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, F. Bacon, T. Hobbes, determines a change in the subject of psychology: it becomes consciousness, cognizable by man through introspection (introspection). This stage continues until the second half of the 19th century. At the end of the 19th century. psychology is separated from philosophy and becomes an independent experimental science.

On third stage (early 20th century), consciousness, as a subject of research, as well as introspection, as its method, were sharply criticized by representatives behaviorism(from the English “behavior” - behavior). The creator of this scientific direction, American psychologist John Broadus Watson, believed that psychology should study only what can be directly observed, i.e. behavior, which was proposed to be considered as a subject of psychology. The behavior of humans and animals can be explained based on the relationship between the directly observable effects on the body of physical stimuli (stimuli) and the directly observable responses of the body (reactions). Hence the main formula of behaviorism: “stimulus → response” (S-R). The development of behaviorist ideas led to the creation neo-behaviorism(E. Tolman, R. Skinner) and social behaviorism(A. Bandura, J. Rotter).

In the 20th century A number of other areas of psychological science are emerging, each of which has its own subject of research. These include psychoanalysis, Gestalt psychology, humanistic psychology, cognitive psychology, etc.

Psychoanalysis(depth psychology) is a psychological theory developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud, as well as a method of treating mental disorders based on this theory. Psychoanalysis was developed in various directions by Alfred Adler (individual psychology), Carl Jung (analytical psychology), and later by Erich Fromm, Karen Horney, Harry Sullivan, Jacques Lacan and others (neo-Freudianism). The main provisions of psychoanalysis: 1) human behavior, experience and cognition are largely determined by instincts, internal and irrational drives; 2) these drives are unconscious, attempts to recognize them lead to psychological resistance in the form of defense mechanisms; 3) individual development is largely determined by the events of early childhood; 4) conflicts between consciousness and the unconscious (repressed facts, memories, etc.) can lead to mental disorders (neurosis, fear, depression, etc.); 5) liberation from the influence of the unconscious can be achieved through its awareness (for example, with the support of a psychoanalyst).

Gestalt psychology was created by German psychologists Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Köhler in the first third of the 20th century. According to Gestaltists, the objects that make up our environment are perceived by the senses not as the sum of individual elements, but as gestalts(integral images, structures). Moreover, the properties of gestalts are not equal to the sum of the properties of their elements. Thus, perception is not reduced to the sum of sensations, and the properties of a figure are not described through the properties of its parts.

Humanistic psychology(early 60s of the 20th century) - a direction in Western (mainly American) psychology, recognizing as its main subject the personality as a unique integral system that strives for self-actualization, i.e. maximum realization of human potential. Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Viktor Frankl, Rolo May, James Bugental can be included in this direction. The main position of humanistic psychology: man creates himself, he is oriented towards the future; his life has purpose, values ​​and meaning.

Cognitive psychology– a branch of psychology that studies cognitive (cognitive) processes. This trend arose in the USA in the 50-60s. 20th century and is based on the analogy between the transformation of information in a computer and the process of cognition in humans (“computer metaphor”). Research by cognitive psychologists is usually related to issues of memory, attention, feelings, presentation of information, logical thinking, imagination, and decision-making ability. The main representatives of this direction are: George Miller, Jerome Bruner, Ulrik Neisser and others.

Among modern psychologists there is no common understanding of the subject of psychology. Its most universal definition, which does not contradict the views of most researchers, is the following. Item psychological science make up data mental life, mechanisms And patterns psyche. Example.

Problems of psychology

Modern psychology solves two groups of problems. First - tasks theoretical. Their solution involves deepening, expanding, integrating (unifying) and systematizing (bringing into a system) existing knowledge about the psyche. Second - tasks practical. This is a solution to everyday psychological problems in various areas of human activity (education, medicine, sports, business, etc.).

Psychological knowledge is necessary for a person, firstly, to successfully adapt to changes in nature and the social environment; secondly, for a deeper understanding of oneself and others, establishing effective relationships with them, thirdly, for self-improvement, optimal use of personal potential, increasing the efficiency of professional activities, establishing successful interaction with complex modern technology, etc.

Main branches of psychology

The basis of psychological science is generalpsychology- a fundamental discipline that explores the essence and general patterns of the emergence, functioning and development of the psyche. It became the basis for the development of a number of applied (special) disciplines, which include:

Nowadays they are also successfully developing psychology business, psychology sports, psychology dance, military, legal, medical psychology and other areas of psychological science related to different types human activity.

Lecture notes on psychology

Lesson form: lecture

Subject: Memory.

Target: Form an idea of ​​memory.

Tasks: 1) introduce the concept of “memory”;

2) introduce processes, types and types of memory, their properties;

3) consolidate the acquired knowledge about memory processes and types.

Forms of work: clarity, working with diagrams, working with tables.

I.Introductory part.

Greeting the audience.

Please try to answer this question: What would happen if we didn’t remember anything: not what we did yesterday, today, not our names, nothing? (answers)

Why do we remember almost everything that happened to us, we remember what our friends’ names are, what day of the week it is and how many couples there are today? What helps us remember everything that is significant to us? (answers)

What do you think our lecture today will be about? (answers)

Indeed, the topic of our lecture "Memory". Plan our lecture is as follows:

1. Concept.

2. Memory processes.

3. Types of memory.

4. Properties of memory.

5. Types of memory.

II. Main part.

So, let's begin. What do you think memory is? (answers)

- Memory- This mental process of reflecting and storing past experiences, making it possible to reuse it and return it to the sphere of consciousness.(Petrovsky)

- Memory– a complex mental process consisting of several private processes associated with each other.()

Underline the main words in the definition.

What is the reflection of past experience? (in that Ch. remembered, saved, recalled everything that he saw, did, felt, and thought about.)

That is Memory is the ability to retain and reproduce traces of impressions.

- What is the role of memory in human life? (answers)

Memory is most important characteristic mental life of the individual. The role of memory cannot be reduced to capturing what “happened in the past” (samples of the past in psychology are called representations). No actual action is conceivable outside the processes of memory, since the course of any, even the most elementary, mental act necessarily presupposes the retention of each given element for “coupling” with subsequent ones. Without the ability for such “cohesion,” development is impossible: a person would remain “eternally in the position of a newborn.” Memory ensures the unity and integrity of the human personality.

For example, imagine a person. “I remember today, but not tomorrow.” What could be said about such a person? Could he combine his desires?

What can memory be compared to? Can it be compared to a potato storage facility? How are they similar, what do they have in common?

How is the potato harvest obtained? Let's remember this process.

On the board: plant ---- grows --- dig up --- collect --- sort --- store --- use --- sort through --- use

- But this comparison requires clarification. Try to prove why. (answers)

Really. During processing, information is distorted. You can remember. But not in the smallest detail.

- Let's move on to the second point of our lecture plan. Memory Processes:

-1) Memorization - This imprinting in the human mind received information, cat. is a necessary condition for enriching human experience with new knowledge and forms of behavior. Z. always selectively: Not everything that affects our senses is retained in memory. Any memorization is a product of the action of a subject with an object. Thus, what Ch. acts with is remembered. The characteristics of Z. of this or that material are determined by the motives, goals and methods of the individual’s activities.

For example, if you show a person how to cook soup, that’s one thing, but if he cooks this soup himself, he will remember it much better. And this will be true for any action. Cat. no matter what a person does.

In accordance with the goals of the activity, cat. memorization processes are included, highlight 2 main types of memorization:

Involuntary memorization is a product and condition for the implementation of cognitive and practical actions. Since memorization itself is not our goal, then about everything that is remembered involuntarily, we usually say: “I remember it myself.” In fact, this is a strictly natural process, determined by the characteristics of our activities. As research shows, for the productivity of involuntary memorization, the place that this material occupies in the activity is important. If the material is included in the content of the main goal of the activity, it is remembered better than if it is included in the conditions and methods of achieving this goal.

- Let me give you an example. In the experiments, schoolchildren and students were given five simple arithmetic problems to solve. In both cases, unexpectedly, the subjects were asked to recall the conditions and numbers of the tasks. Schoolchildren remembered almost three times more numbers than college students. This is explained by this. Although for first-graders the ability to add and subtract numbers has not yet become a skill, for them it is a meaningful, purposeful action.

Operating with numbers constituted the content of the purpose of this action, whereas for students it was part of the method, and not the purpose of the action.

Materials that occupy different places in activities acquire different meanings. Therefore, it requires different orientations and is reinforced in different ways. The content of the main goal requires more active orientation and receives effective reinforcement as an achieved result of the activity and is therefore better remembered than what concerns the conditions for achieving the goal.

The facts of special studies show that the material that takes the place of the main goal in the activity is remembered the better, the more meaningful connections are established with it.

For example, in a study. Where they studied involuntary memorization of a text that students need to understand, they found that easier text was remembered worse than text of average difficulty.

Or this example. We remember difficult texts better if we first plan the text. And if the plan is given ready-made, then we remember it worse.

Hence, involuntarily, the material that causes active mental work on it + emotions is remembered better. human reaction.

It is known that we involuntarily remember fully and firmly, sometimes for the rest of our lives, what is especially important in life for us, what arouses our interest and emotions. Involuntary memorization will be the more productive the more interested we are in the content of the task being performed.

So, if a student is interested in a lesson, he remembers its content better than then. When a schoolchild listens “for the sake of order.”

If a person sets himself a motive to remember, will he remember better or worse? (answers)

Voluntary memorization is a product of special mnemonic actions, i.e. such actions, the main goal of which is memorization itself.

A major role in voluntary memorization is played by motives that encourage memorization. The communicated information can be understood and memorized, but without acquiring lasting significance for the student, it can be quickly forgotten.

For example, if we talk about passing an exam. Very quickly one forgets material that is memorized only for the exam, cramming, without setting for a strong, long-term consolidation..

Among the conditions for the productivity of voluntary memorization, the central place is occupied by using rational memorization techniques. Knowledge is composed of a certain system of facts, concepts, and judgments. Understanding is a necessary condition for logical, meaningful memorization. What is understood is remembered faster and more firmly because it is meaningfully associated with previously acquired knowledge, with a person’s past experience. On the contrary, what is misunderstood or poorly understood always appears in a person’s consciousness as something separate, not meaningfully connected with past experience. Incomprehensible material usually does not arouse interest in itself.

One of the most important logical memorization techniques - drawing up a plan for the material to be learned. It includes three points: 1) breaking down the material into its component parts; 2) coming up with titles for them or highlighting some strong point with which the entire content of this part of the material is easily associated; H) linking parts by their titles or highlighted strongholds into a single chain of associations.

Of great importance comparison as a method of logical memorization. Emphasizing differences in objects is especially important. Establishing only general, and even more so very broad connections between objects can make it difficult to remember them. This largely explains the difficulty in remembering (for example, the Ovsov surname in Chekhov’s story “The Horse's Name”).

One of the important means of remembering is reproduction, which takes the form of retelling the memorized content to oneself. However, it is useful to use this method only after preliminary comprehension and awareness of the material, especially in cases where the material is complex and difficult to understand. Reproduction, especially in your own words, improves understanding of the material.

If a person reproduces the material in his own words, then memorization will proceed better, because the material is realized and processed, that is, pronounced, but in different words. With understanding.

MEMORY

INVOLVENTARY ARBITRARY

MECHANICALLY INTELLIGENT

LEARNING UNDERSTANDING

2) Saving - the process of retaining acquired knowledge in memory for a relatively long period of time.

There are: - short-term

- long-term

Forgetting - a process consisting in the impossibility of reproducing something previously fixed in memory.

The process of forgetting can be more or less profound. In accordance with this, updating

of forgotten images or thoughts becomes more or less difficult or becomes completely impossible. Forgetting turns out to be the more profound the less often certain material is included in a person’s activity, the less significant it becomes for achieving current life goals. At the same time, the inability to remember any material does not mean that it is completely lost, completely dropped out of the individual’s experience.

It happens: - complete (quick – 1st 48 hours)

- partial (slow)

In principle, forgetting is a purposeful phenomenon. What, being included in the activities of the individual, remains significant for him, is not forgotten. Inclusion in activity is a reliable means of connecting material with human needs and, therefore, combating forgetting. One of the techniques for such inclusion is the systematic repetition of what should be stored in memory.

We speak of retention when there is no forgetting, and of forgetting when the material is poorly remembered. Therefore, preservation is nothing more than a fight against forgetting.

PRESERVATION FORGETING

SHORT-TERM COMPLETE

LONG PARTIAL

3) Playback – a memory process, as a result of which the previously fixed content of the psyche is updated by extracting it from long-term memory and moving into operational memory.

The process of actualization (restoration of previously learned material) can be characterized by varying degrees of difficulty or ease of occurrence: from automatic recognition of objects around us to painfully difficult recall of forgotten things. In accordance with this, highlighting its various kinds, you can arrange them in the following order: recognition, actual reproduction (which can be involuntary or voluntary) and recall. A special place is occupied by memories - the historical memory of a person.

Recognition is the reproduction of an object under conditions of repeated perception. Recognition is of great vital importance. Without it, we would each time perceive objects as new, and not as already familiar to us. Recognition always connects our experience with the perception of surrounding objects and thereby gives us the opportunity to correctly navigate the surrounding reality.

Recognition varies in the degree of its certainty, clarity and completeness. It can be carried out as an involuntary or voluntary process. Usually, when recognition is complete, clear, and definite, it is carried out as a one-time involuntary act. We involuntarily, without any effort, imperceptibly for ourselves, in the process of perception, recognize an object that we previously perceived. Involuntary recognition is included in a person's daily activities. But recognition can be very incomplete and therefore uncertain.

Thus, when we see a person, we may experience a feeling of familiarity, but we will not be able to identify this person with the one we knew in the past. It also happens that we recognize a person, but cannot remember the conditions under which we previously perceived him.

In cases of too incomplete or insufficiently complete recognition, it can acquire a complex arbitrary character. Based on the perception of an object, we deliberately recall various circumstances in order to clarify its recognition. In this case, recognition is transformed into reproduction.

The actual playback, in contrast to recognition, is carried out without repeated perception of the object that is being reproduced. Reproduction is usually triggered by content

the activity that a person is carrying out at the moment, although this activity is not specifically aimed at reproduction, such reproduction will be involuntary. However, it does not happen by itself, without a push. The impetus for involuntary reproduction is the perception of objects, ideas, thoughts, caused, in turn, by certain external influences. The direction and content of reproduced images and thoughts are determined by those associations that were formed in our past experience.

Involuntary reproduction can be directed and organized when it is caused not by randomly perceived objects, but by the content of a certain activity that a person is performing at the moment.

The more systematically and logically the teacher constructs the lesson, the more organized it will be based on past experience. is involuntarily reproduced by teachers during classes.

- Random Play caused by the reproductive task that a person sets for himself. In cases where the material is firmly fixed, reproduction occurs easily. But sometimes it is not possible to remember what is needed, and then you have to do an active search, overcoming certain difficulties. Such reproduction is called recall.

Recall, like voluntary memorization, can be a very complex mental activity. The ability to remember well has to be learned: the effectiveness and readiness to use one’s knowledge depends on it: As a rule, good memorization also ensures good reproduction. But the success of recall largely depends on the conditions under which and how it is carried out.

Recall, as well as memorization, as well selectively . A well-conscious and precisely formulated reproductive task directs the further course of recall, helps select the necessary material in our memory and inhibits side associations.

The success of recall depends on which ones are used recall techniques. The most important will be the following: drawing up a plan for the recalled material; active evocation of images of relevant objects; the deliberate evocation of mediating associations that, in a roundabout way, lead to the reproduction of what is needed.

The success of recall significantly depends on how motivated the implementation of the reproductive task is.

Recall is not a simple reproduction of past impressions. The knowledge we have acquired in the past, when reproduced, is associated with new knowledge, arranged in a new way, and realized more deeply. Confidence in the ability to remember has a great influence on the act of reproduction.

PLAYBACK

Now let's get back to the process of harvesting. Try to relate the processes of harvesting to the processes of memory and explain why. (work in groups)

They're imprisoning- remember

Grows---dig up--- collect---sort---store– save (must be saved for future use)

Use– playback

- Let's move on to point 3 of the plan. Types of memory.

Classification of main types of memory (by)

Group task: summarize information by type of memory and present it in the form of a diagram (10 min.), then present it on the board.

Let's move on to point 4 of the plan. Properties of memory.

Memory has certain properties. The combination of these properties gives two generalized psychological characteristics:

1) Productivity

2) Efficiency

Now I will read out a few examples, and you try to determine which memory property is impaired.

Memory properties include:

1. Volume is a quantitative characteristic that reflects the ability of individual memory to capture, store and reproduce information.

2. Speed ​​– a person’s ability to achieve a certain speed of processing and use in the process of capturing, storing and reproducing information.

The speed of memorization is determined by the number of repetitions required for a particular person to memorize a certain amount of material.

3. Accuracy - characteristic. Which reflects a person’s ability to preserve basic indicators and essential characteristics of an object in memory processes.

4. Duration is the most important characteristic of human memory, indicating the ability to retain certain information for the required time.

5. Strength is expressed in the retention of memorized material and in the speed of forgetting it.

6. Readiness is an indicator of the predisposition of a person’s consciousness to actively use (operate) information. The readiness of memory is expressed in how easily and quickly a person can remember at the right moment what he needs.

These features of memory are determined by the conditions of its upbringing and depend primarily on how rational methods of memorization are formed in each person. They are associated with the habit of precision and accuracy in work, the presence of a responsible attitude towards one’s duties, persistence in performing them, etc. Memory readiness, in addition, depends on systematic in acquiring and consolidating knowledge.

The next thing we'll look at is memory types.

First, let's define how memory types differ from types? (answers)

(types are what we remember, and types are how we remember)

Individual differences in memory are manifested in the fact that some people more productively consolidate figurative material (objects, images, sounds, colors, etc.), others - verbal material (concepts, thoughts, numbers, etc.), Still others do not notice a clear advantage in memorizing certain material. Due to this in psychology, visual-figurative, verbal-abstract and intermediate types of memory are distinguished. These types depend to a certain extent on the relationship between the first and second signaling systems in the higher nervous activity of people. Life facts prove that the predominance of images or thoughts in memorizing is determined primarily by the living conditions and activities of people. The demands of life and professional activity determine more or less pronounced characteristics of one or another type of memory.

In your opinion, what profession do people most often have a visual-figurative type of memory? Why? What about the verbal-abstract type? (the visual-figurative type of memory is more common among artists, the verbal-abstract type - among theoreticians).

Typically, people do not have a predominance of one or another type of memory.

Visual-figurative type of memory differentiates depending on which analyzer turns out to be the most productive when remembering various impressions, In accordance with this distinguish between motor, visual and auditory types of memory, but these types are rare in their pure form. More common mixed type: visual-motor, erotic-auditory, auditory-motor. A person uses the corresponding features of his memory as a method of increasing its productivity.

The teacher needs to take into account individual differences in students' memory. At the same time, he must develop their comprehensive memory (visual, auditory, and motor) - this is required by the diversity of the educational material itself:

it creates the most favorable conditions for the comprehensive development of students’ memory,

Already in adolescence, memory should become the object of not only education, but also self-education. Self-education of memory achieves significant success when it is based on knowledge of the laws of its formation. In this regard, they sometimes talk about the benefits of the so-called mnemonics, which is a set of formal techniques that ensure artificial consolidation of material in memory, but mnemonics only replaces the logical content and never compensates for it. The basis for the development of semantic memory is the meaningful cognitive activity of the individual.

Thus, the type of memory depends on the natural characteristics of the nervous system and on upbringing. Belonging to a type is determined by the practice of memorization. A certain type of memory can be developed through appropriate exercises. The initial manifestation of memory is a conditioned reflex. A more distinct manifestation of memory is detected when the child begins to recognize objects. First comes recognition. Reproduction - much later. (1st signs in the second year) at first the memory is involuntary. The development of voluntary memory in preschool age occurs in games and in the process of education. What is interesting is remembered better. The rapid development of memory characteristics occurs during the school years. Associated with the learning process.

III. Final part.

In conclusion, we can note the following: memory is the most important characteristic of all mental processes. It ensures the unity and integrity of the human personality. Memory is a mental cognitive process of reflecting and preserving past experience, making it possible to reuse it and return it to the sphere of consciousness. There are such types of memory as motor (motor) memory, emotional memory, figurative memory, verbal-logical memory, involuntary memory, voluntary memory, long-term memory, short-term memory, operative memory. And types of memory: visual-figurative type of memory, verbal-abstract and mixed types of memory.

Now please prepare some leaves. A little independent work. TASK: Prove whether each of the following statements is true/false:

1. Memory is a “secondary” reflection of past experience. (+)

2. Memory is eliminated in the present. (To the future)

3. Memory is a passive source of information processing. (active)

We hand over the leaves. Thank you for your attention and work. The lecture is over. Everyone can be free.

Literature:

Luria's book about great memory. Maklakov psychology. Petrovsky psychology. Rubinstein in pathopsychology. Smirnov psychology of memory.

Psychology. Brief lecture notes

Abstract

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