Who is responsible for the beginning of the reformation in Europe? Beginning of the Reformation in Europe

The Reformation is a church-social movement of the 16th century in Europe against the Catholic Church, in which the struggle for religious ideals was intertwined with the class struggle of the peasantry and the emerging bourgeoisie with the feudal lords. Became a catalyst for the collapse of feudal society and the emergence of rudimentary forms of capitalism

Causes of the Reformation

Catholicism was a whole system that imposed a framework on the entire culture and social organization of European peoples:

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All secular institutions of European society united in the struggle against the Catholic Church: state power, the emerging bourgeoisie, the oppressed peasantry, intellectuals, and representatives of the liberal professions. They fought not in the name of the purity of Christian doctrine, not in the name of restoring the Bible as the main authority in matters of religion, not in the name of the demands of conscience and religious thought, but because Catholicism interfered with the free development of social relations in all spheres of life

Reformation in Europe

The formal beginning of the Reformation is considered to be October 31, 1517, when the vicar of the deanery of the Augustinian Order, Martin Luther, published his 95 theses against the trade in papal indulgences*

1520s - Germany
1525 - Prussia, Livonia
1530s - England
1536 - Denmark
1536 - Norway
1540 - Iceland
1527-1544 - Sweden
1518-1520s - Switzerland: Zurich, Bern, Basel, Geneva
1520-1530s - France: Lutheranism and Anabaptism
1550s - France: Calvinism
1540-1560s - Netherlands

Figures of the Reformation

Martin Luther (1483–1546) - Germany
Philip Melanchthon (1497–1560) - Germany
Hans Tausen (1494–1561) - Denmark
Olaus Petri (1493–1552) - Sweden
Ulrich Zwingli (1484–1531) – Switzerland
John Calvin (1509–1564) – France, Switzerland
Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556) - England
John Knox (1514?–1572) - Scotland
J. Lefebvre (1450-1536) - France
G. Brisonnet (1470-1534) - France
M. Agricola (1510-1557) - Finland
T. Munzer (1490-1525) - Germany

As a result of the Reformation, some believers adopted the ideas of its main figures Luther and Calvin, turning from Catholics to Lutherans and Calvinists

Brief biography of Martin Luther

1483 (1484?), November 10 - born in Eisleben (Saxony)
1497-1498 - study at the Lollard school in Magdeburg
1501 - 1505 - studies at the University of Erfurt
1505 - 1506 - novice in the Augustinian monastery (Erfurt)
1506 - took monastic vows
1507 - ordained to the priesthood
1508 - moves to the Wiggenberg monastery and enters the theological faculty of the University of Wiggenberg
1512, October 19 - Martin Luther receives his Doctor of Divinity degree
1515 - elected vicar of the deanery (11 monasteries) of the Augustinian Order.
1617, October 31 - Father Martin Luther posted 95 theses on indulgences on the door of the Wittenberg parish church.
1517-1520 - numerous theological articles criticizing the existing order in the church
1520, June 15 - bull of Pope Leo X, which invites Luther to renounce his heretical ideas within 60 days
1520, December 10 - in the town square of Wiggenberg, a crowd of students and monks under the leadership of Luther burned the papal bull and the writings of Luther's opponents.
1521, January 3 - Leo X's bull excommunicating Martin Luther from the Church.
1521, May - 1522, March - Martin Luther, under the name of Jurgen Jorg, hides in the Wartburg Fortress, continuing his journalistic activities
1522, March 6 - return to Wittenberg
1525, June 13 - marriage to Katharina von Bora
1525, December 29 - the first service according to the new rite, performed by Luther.
1526, June 7 - Luther's son Hans was born
1527, December 10 - Luther's daughter Elizabeth was born, died April 3, 1528.
1522-1534 - journalistic activity, translation into German of the books of the prophets and the Bible
1536, May 21-28 - a meeting of the largest theologians of the new faith took place in Wittenberg under the chairmanship of Luther
1537, February 9 - Protestant congress in Schmalkalden, for which Luther wrote the Creed.
1537-1546 - journalism, traveling around Germany
1546, February 18 - Martin Luther died of heart disease

The main idea of Lutheranism is salvation by personal faith, which is given by God, without the help of the church. The connection between God and man is personal; the church is not a mediator between God and man. All believers are recognized as equal before Christ, priests lose their position as a special class. Religious communities themselves invite pastors and elect governing bodies. The source of doctrine is the Bible, which the believer has the right to independently explain. Instead of Latin, services are conducted in the native language of the believer

Brief biography of John Calvin

1509, July 10 - born in the French city of Noyon
1513-1531 in Paris, Orleans, Bourget studied the humanities, law, theology, received a licentiate degree
1532, spring - published his first scientific work at his own expense - comments on Seneca’s treatise “On Meekness”
1532 - received his doctorate in Orleans
1532, second half - became a Protestant
1533, October - wrote the speech “On Christian philosophy"for the rector of the university, Nicolas Copa, for which he was persecuted
1533-1535 - how the author of a seditious speech hid in the south of France
1535, winter - fearing for his life, fled to Switzerland
1536, first half - lived in Basel and the Italian town of Ferrara at the court of the Duchess of Ferrara Renee, daughter of King Louis XII, published his main work “Establishments of the Christian Faith”
1536, July-1538, spring - lived in Geneva until he was expelled
1538-1540 - Bern, Zurich, Strasbourg
1540, September - marriage to the widow Idelette Shtorder
1541, September 13 - return to Geneva by decision of the City Council
1541, November 20 - presented a draft charter of the church, which was approved by the General Assembly of Citizens

The charter provided for the election of 12 elders. Judicial and supervisory power was concentrated in the hands of the elders. The entire government structure of Geneva acquired a strict religious character. Gradually, all city power was concentrated in a small council, over which Calvin had unlimited influence.
The laws adopted at the insistence of Calvin were intended to make Geneva a prototype of the “city of God.” Geneva was to become Protestant Rome. Calvin called for strict monitoring of cleanliness and order in Geneva - it was to become a model for other cities in everything.
Calvin considered the task of the church to be the religious education of all citizens. To achieve this, Calvin carried out a series of reforms aimed at establishing “worldly asceticism.” The pompous Catholic cult was abolished, and strict administrative measures were taken aimed at strengthening morality. Petty and captious supervision was established over all citizens. Attendance at church services became mandatory; entertainment, dancing, bright clothes, and loud laughter were prohibited. Gradually, not a single theater remained in Geneva, mirrors were broken as unnecessary, elegant hairstyles were obstructed. Calvin had a heavy, domineering character. He was intolerant of both Catholics and representatives of other reform movements. At his insistence, opponents of his teaching were subjected to expulsion and even death penalty. In 1546 alone, 58 death sentences and 76 decrees of expulsion from the city were passed in Geneva.

1553 - by verdict of the Geneva consistory, M. Servet was executed for heretical views. First time sentenced to death for dissent
1559 - Founding of the Geneva Academy - a higher theological institution for the training of preachers
1564, May 27 - Calvin died. He was buried without ceremony, without a gravestone. Soon his burial place was lost

The main idea of Calvinism is the doctrine of “absolute predestination,” according to which God, even before the “creation of the world,” predestined some people to “salvation” and others to “destruction,” and this sentence of God is absolutely unchangeable. However, the doctrine of “absolute predestination” was not fatalistic in nature. According to Calvinism, life is given to a person in order to reveal the abilities inherent in him by God, and success in earthly affairs represents a sign of salvation. Calvinism proclaimed new moral values - frugality and prudence combined with tireless work, moderation in everyday life, and the spirit of entrepreneurship

Counter-Reformation

Every action implies a reaction. Catholic Europe responded to the Reformation movement with the Counter-Reformation (1543 - 1648). The Catholic Church refused to grant indulgences, new monastic orders and theological seminaries were founded, a uniform liturgy (the most important Christian service), the Gregorian calendar were introduced, the Reformation was suppressed in Poland, the Habsburg lands, and France. The Counter-Reformation formalized the final break between Catholicism and Protestantism

Results of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation

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*Indulgence - remission of sins for money

The beginning of the Reformation in Europe is associated with the name Martin Luther. Martin Luther challenged the Catholic Church in Wittenberg in Saxony. This occurred after the arrival in the area of the German preacher Johann Tetzel, who sold indulgences to raise money for Pope Leo X. Indulgences had long been criticized by Catholic theologians (scholars of religion), but they financial success ensured the existence of this practice because it was too profitable to stop.

In response, Luther posted a document with 95 theses (statements) on the door of the city church on October 23, 1514. Luther's theses were not radical, but they attracted a wide audience, and, thanks to recent advances in printing, they were widely circulated and read everywhere.

Luther's initial criticism of the church was directed against the sale of indulgences, but he went on to attack the core of the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation (the belief that bread and wine are transformed into the body and blood of Christ at the time of communion), the celibacy of priests, and the primacy of popes. He also called for reform of religious orders, monasteries, and a return to the simplicity of the earlier church.

Lutheran Church

The Reformation spread across Europe following Luther's challenge to the established church. He won many followers, but initially Luther only wanted to reform the existing church, not create an entirely new system.

Several attempts were made to reconcile Luther with the religious authorities. In 1521 he was summoned to present his views before the imperial parliament at Worms in the presence of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, who ruled most of Europe. Luther refused to renounce his views and, having already been excommunicated by the pope, he was now outlawed by the emperor.

In response, he founded an independent church and began translating the Bible into German. Previous editions of the Bible had been published in Latin. Luther's edition allowed people to read the Bible in their own language for the first time.

Part of the power of Luther's teaching lay in his call for Germanic identity. Germany at this point consisted of many independent states that were nominally subordinate to Emperor Charles V. The German princes wanted to maintain their power, and they saw in Luther's teachings a way to simultaneously get rid of both imperial and ecclesiastical control over Germany. What began as a religious dispute soon became a political revolution.

In 1524, a peasant war broke out in southwestern Germany as a result of economic difficulties in the region. The League of German Princes, supported by Luther, brutally suppressed the uprising in 1526. The revolt horrified Luther, as did the secular leaders against whom it was directed.

One after another, the northern German states - Saxony, Hesse. Brandenburg, Brunswick and others accepted Lutheranism. Each state seized control of the church, strengthening the ruler's power over his people.

Worldwide response

The appeal of Lutheranism was not limited to Germany. In 1527, King Gustav Vasa of Sweden, who had achieved independence from Denmark and Norway in 1523, seized church lands to provide funds for his new state. He then reformed the new state church according to Lutheran rules.

A similar process of adaptation of Lutheranism occurred in Denmark and Norway in 1536. In England, the break with the Roman Church occurred after the pope refused to approve the divorce of Henry VIII from his wife Catherine of Aragon. Henry replaced the Pope as head of the English Church.

Political consequences

The political response to the Lutheran Reformation was led by Emperor Charles V, but his vast possessions in Europe brought him into conflict, incl. and with France. The war between these two powers, and between Charles and the growing power of the Muslim Ottoman Empire in the Mediterranean and Balkans, meant that he could not devote all his resources to destroying Lutheranism in Germany.

Charles defeated the Lutherans at the Battle of Mühlberg in 1547, but was unable to destroy them politically. A religious and political compromise was finally reached after the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, in which the Emperor ordered every prince in his empire to choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism, and to spread that faith among his subjects.

Luther himself was a conservative theologian and respected order. But many of those who followed him were much more radical.

Zwingli and Calvin

In Zurich, W. Zwingli converted the city to the Lutheran faith. His 67 theses in 1523 were adopted by the city councils as official doctrine. However, he disagreed with Luther regarding the nature of the Eucharist (the bread and wine taken during communion) and began to lead the Swiss church in a more radical, non-hierarchical direction. His death in 1531 while defending Zurich against the Catholic cantons (provinces) of Switzerland slowed the momentum of the Reformation in Switzerland.

John Calvin, who began to create a new religious center in Geneva, subsequently became a key figure associated with the Protestant reform in Switzerland. Calvin converted to the new reformed faith in 1533 and settled in Geneva in 1536. There he developed a more severe form of Protestantism based on his own reading of Scripture and his deep academic training, which emphasized the destiny of God over all human actions.

Although Calvin himself did not develop any practical theory of resistance to wicked power such as that of the Catholic Church or Catholic rulers, many of his followers were willing to assert their views by force on the basis of his teachings. Like Luther, he emphasized the direct connection of the individual with God without the mediation of popes or priests and the primacy of the Bible as the basis of all preaching and teaching. The Bible was now widely distributed throughout modern languages, and not in Latin - the language of the church.

Unlike Luther, however, who believed in the political subordination of the church to the state, Calvin preached that church and state must act together to create a divine society in which religious beliefs and a strict code of conduct should determine every aspect of daily life.

Calvinism spread to Scotland, the Netherlands and many parts of France, where its followers were known as Huguenots, as well as to various areas of the German states, Bohemia and Transylvania. Calvinism also inspired the Puritan movement in England, and later in North America, where its adherents wanted to cleanse the Anglican Church of remaining Catholic elements, in particular the power of bishops and other “papist” decorations such as ecclesiastical vestments, utensils and music.

Catholic response

The initial Catholic response to the Reformation was to excommunicate those who rebelled against it. When it became clear that this would not defeat the Reformation, the Catholic Church began to reform itself based on internal calls for church reform that long predated Luther's speech.

After three meetings at Trident in the Italian Alps in 1545-1563. The Catholic Church began the Counter-Reformation. The Catholic Counter-Reformation progressed successfully, strengthening Catholicism both theologically and politically, although a more authoritarian orthodoxy was established.

Poland, Austria and Bavaria became fully Catholic, but while Germany was largely at peace, the strong Calvinist (Huguenot) presence in France caused long religious wars that only ended when the Edict of Nantes in 1598 proclaimed religious toleration . At the end of the century, apparently 40% of the population of Europe followed one or another of the reformed beliefs.

How the church reformation took place in various countries of Western Europe, Calvinism in France, the Reformation in England, what the Jesuit Order and the Council of Trent are, the Catholic Reformation.

Another direction in Protestantism also became widespread in Europe - Calvinism, the founder of which was the French preacher John Calvin (1509-1564).

John Calvin was born in northern France. Already during his years at the university, he acutely felt the onset of a religious crisis. “I saw that the Gospel was suppressed by superstition, that the Word of God was deliberately hidden from the children of the church,” wrote Calvin. Therefore, he, “seeing the disorder of the church, raised the old banner of Jesus Christ.” Persecution of Protestants in France forced him to flee to the Swiss city of Basel, where in 1536 his “Instructions in the Christian Faith” were published. The principles formulated in the book of the French reformer represented the most developed theological system of all created by Protestant thinkers.

Calvin taught that no one knows his purpose in life. Life is given to a person in order to reveal the abilities inherent in him by God, and success in earthly affairs represents a sign of salvation. He proclaimed new moral values - thrift and prudence combined with tireless work, moderation in everyday life, and the spirit of entrepreneurship. In fact, a new attitude towards work was proclaimed: from punishment it turned into the highest form of human self-expression. Calvin was convinced that the gospel message called for the transformation of not only the church, but also the entire society and the earthly world as a whole.

Calvin went further than Luther, not limiting himself only to the reform of the church and striving to transform all social relations. That is why the French reformer is considered one of the greatest figures in human history.

John Calvin's main activity took place in Geneva, a French-speaking imperial city that, shortly before his arrival there, had joined the Swiss Confederation. The French reformer managed not only to convert the inhabitants of the city, but also to turn Geneva into the Protestant capital of the world. Gradually, Calvin's ideas surpassed Lutheran teaching in their influence on the souls of people. Under his leadership, a new church-political system was established in Geneva, which changed the entire life of the city.

Life in Geneva was completely transformed: a solemn spiritual mood replaced the former noisy social life, splendor in clothes disappeared, masquerades, dances and amusements were prohibited, taverns and theaters were empty, churches, on the contrary, were filled with people. All decorations were removed from churches, and visiting them became mandatory. Violators of the established order were severely punished. This “Geneva State of God” was a self-governing religious community, and Calvin, as its leader, acquired the nickname “Pope of Geneva.”

Outside of Switzerland, Calvinism primarily influenced the reformer's homeland. Calvin's followers in France were called Huguenots. They took an influential position in French society and largely began to determine the path of its development.

Features of the Reformation in England

England entered the era of the Reformation during the reign of King Henry VIII (1509-1547). The English king, who had a theological education, responded to Luther’s speech with a critical pamphlet, for which he received the honorary title “Defender of the Faith” from the Pope.

However, very soon Henry turned into one of the most fierce opponents of the papacy. This was explained by the family affairs of the king, who tried in vain to obtain Rome's consent to dissolve his marriage with Catherine of Aragon. She was the daughter of the “Catholic kings” Ferdinand and Isabella and the aunt of Charles V, so the Pope, who was then heavily dependent on the German emperor, did not dare to agree to a divorce. In the end, Henry got a divorce with the help of the head of the English church, the Archbishop of Canterbury, but since relations with the Roman throne were completely damaged, he decided to use this opportunity to carry out church reforms.

The “Parliament of the Reformation,” which met from 1529 to 1536, adopted a number of laws that completely transformed the English Church and removed it from the rule of Rome. Of utmost importance was the Act of Supremacy (Supremacy) of 1534, which declared the king the head of the English Church. The victim of this law was the great English humanist Thomas More, who was executed for refusing to recognize the king's ecclesiastical powers.

The renewed church received the name Anglican. It took an intermediate position between Catholicism and Protestantism. Having freed himself from subordination to Rome and switched from Latin to English language, the Anglican Church has largely preserved Catholic dogma and church structure. First of all, the leading role of bishops in the church organization was preserved.

The most important consequence of the Reformation in England was the spread of literacy. The Bible was translated into English. The English of that time had practically no other books; the Bible was their main reading. During the Reformation, about three thousand monasteries were closed, which owned almost 1/4 of all cultivated land in the country. This was the largest redistribution of property in new history England, which had enormous social consequences. The Reformation thus became one of the most powerful factors in the transformation of English society.

Queen Mary Tudor (1553-1558), a staunch Catholic, attempted to reverse the English Reformation. The ecclesiastical legislation of her father Henry VIII was repealed; Mass executions of Protestants began. The Queen received the nickname Bloody Mary. Her marriage to the Spanish king Philip II was accompanied by England's involvement in the war with France, during which the British lost their last stronghold on the continent - the city of Calais. However, her short reign could not stop the spread of the Reformation in England, as demonstrated by the reign of her sister Elizabeth, a staunch Protestant. In 1559, after the accession of Elizabeth I, Parliament confirmed the supremacy of the crown in church affairs.

Since the Anglican Church retained many elements of Catholicism, the Puritan movement arose in England under the influence of Calvinism. Their name comes from English word, meaning “pure”, as the Puritans demanded a complete cleansing of their faith from the Catholic heritage. The followers of this religious movement will be destined to play a huge role both in the fate of their country and in the history of the English colonies in North America.

Catholic Reformation

During the acute confrontation with Protestantism, a partial renewal took place within Catholicism, which made it possible to stop the spread of the new doctrine. This process of internal renewal was called the Catholic Reformation, or “Counter-Reformation.”

The main stronghold of the Catholic faith was Spain, where during the Reconquista it became a national religion that contributed to the unity of the country in the fight against Muslims. The main instrument for strengthening the traditional faith in Spain was a special church court - the Inquisition, established in this country back in 1480. The Grand Inquisitor Torquemada left a gloomy memory of himself, sending almost two thousand followers of Christ to the stake, accused of apostasy from the faith. The executions of heretics turned into solemn spectacles, carried out in front of a large crowd of people. They were called auto-da-fé - literally "act of faith." During the Reformation, the Inquisition sharply intensified. In 1570, the last Protestants in Spain were burned.

With the election of Pope Paul III (1534-1549), the Catholic Reformation acquired a consistent character and pan-European scope. He issued a bull on the reorganization of the Inquisition, which turned into a common institution for the entire Catholic world, designed to fight heresy throughout Europe. Following this, preliminary censorship of all published literature was introduced. Later, the Index of Forbidden Books appeared, which included many outstanding works of the Renaissance and Reformation.

Jesuit Order and Council of Trent

The most important instrument of the Catholic Reformation was the Jesuit Order (named after Jesus Christ). Its founder was a nobleman from Spanish Navarre, a participant in the Italian Wars, Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556).

The wound received during the defense of Pamplona from the French did not allow Loyola to continue his service, and he turned to reflection on spiritual topics. A pilgrimage to the Holy Land strengthened him in the correctness of his chosen path. In 1534, Loyola and a group of like-minded people founded the Society of Jesus, which aimed to fully protect the Catholic Church from its enemies, and in 1540 Paul III approved the charter of the Society of Jesus. Gradually, another unofficial name, “Jesuit Order,” came into use.

The General of the Order was subordinate only to the Pope, and ordinary members were obliged to obey their general unquestioningly. Iron internal discipline, active social and political activity, missionary work in distant countries allowed the Jesuits to achieve impressive success in a short time. By the end of the 1540s. Jesuit missionaries even reached Brazil and Japan. They paid special attention to the education system, creating exemplary for that time educational institutions, where not only good knowledge was given, but also a completely secular education.

The central place in the history of the Catholic Reformation was occupied by the Ecumenical Council, which was held in the Tyrolean city of Trent and met intermittently from 1545 to 1563. The first decisions of the Council of Trent were decrees recognizing the source of faith not only of the Holy Scriptures, but also of the Holy Tradition, as well as on interpretation Scriptures. In Trent, a systematized set of regulations was developed for the first time, clearly regulating the religious life of Catholics. The decisions of the Council of Trent marked the beginning of a real revival of Catholicism.

To save its reputation, the renewed church refused to sell indulgences. Special educational institutions - seminaries - began training educated priests. The entire system of education in the spirit of the church was reorganized on the basis of traditional values. Simultaneously with religious reforms, the Papal State, its administration and finances were strengthened. Compared to the Renaissance, the lifestyle of the popes changed dramatically. In 1568, construction was completed on the largest Catholic church in the world - the Roman Cathedral of St. Peter, which became a symbol of the renewed church. In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII reformed the calendar, which we now know as the Gregorian calendar.

Results of the Reformation in Europe

The Reformation represented the greatest revolution in the spiritual life of Europeans, which in that era was almost entirely determined by religion. It made a real revolution in the sphere of consciousness, led to a complete revolution in the thoughts, beliefs and religious practices of millions of people.

The main consequence of the Reformation was the return to the authority of Holy Scripture, the direct appeal of believers to Divine revelation without intermediaries in the form of a large church hierarchy. Fundamental changes have occurred in attitudes towards human labor. In contrast to previous views of it as a punishment, worldly professional work received moral justification and acquired a high religious meaning.

According to historians, “the best fruit brought by the Reformation was the improvement and proliferation of schools.”

The Reformation had a generally negative impact on the development of the fine arts. At the same time, it gave impetus to the development of a number of new directions. In painting these were landscapes, still lifes, and depictions of everyday scenes. New architectural forms and new types of artistic crafts also appeared.

As a result of the Reformation, a colossal redistribution of property, primarily land, took place, unprecedented in Europe. Entire categories of new owners emerged.

During the era of the Reformation, national churches were created and strengthened in European countries, secular power was strengthened and centralized states of the modern type emerged.

The most important consequence of the Reformation was the split of Europe along religious lines. This predetermined many tragic events in its subsequent history. Religious wars caused by the Reformation took place in many countries, and religious contradictions between them played a major role in the origin of the largest pan-European conflict - the Thirty Years' War.

From the book of Ignatius of Loyola “Spiritual Exercises”

“If the church claims that what seems white to us is black, we must immediately admit it!”
“Although it is highly commendable to serve God out of pure love, yet the fear of the divine majesty must also be earnestly recommended, and not only that fear which we call filial, but also that fear which is called servile.”
“Whoever wants to devote himself to God must give him, in addition to his will, his mind; This is the third and most sublime degree of obedience: one must not only want as the boss wants, one must feel the same way as he does, one must subordinate one’s judgment to him so much that the pious will can conquer the mind.”

Used literature:
V.V. Noskov, T.P. Andreevskaya / History from the end of the 15th to the end of the 18th century

By the end of the 15th century. The state of the Western Church was very sad. Some popes, for example, Alexander VI (Borgia), led a noisy social life, far from the Christian ideal. The bishops were mostly wealthy landowners who were not involved in the life of their dioceses, often did not know theology and almost never performed divine services. Despite the strictest prohibition, the highest church positions were very often sold. The canons (trustees of parishes) were mostly laymen who held ecclesiastical positions solely for the purpose of extracting income from the churches. The lower clergy lived very poorly and were oppressed. The people were in spiritual darkness and superstition. The Christian ideal was mainly preserved by only a few monastic orders.

Against the backdrop of this spiritual state of the Church in Western Europe, a movement called “humanism” was widespread, which placed freedom of mind and personality at the basis of human existence and preached a return to classical antiquity.

Among the humanists of this era, the famous scientist Erasmus of Rotterdam (1467 - 1536) was an outstanding church educator. He was an ardent supporter of the peaceful implementation of church reforms without the use of violence. But his calls were not heard, and in the 16th century the Western Church not only suffered a schism, but also experienced a terrible era of religious wars.

The reasons for the first divisions of the Western Church were both ecclesiastical, arising from the internal state of the Church itself, and political: disagreements between individual states, opposition of the German peoples to Rome and papal rule. The most prominent representative of the opposition was the people's leader Ulrich von Hutten. And the first church movement against Rome was led by Martin Luther. The son of a poor German miner, he was born in 1483 in the town of Eisleben. WITH early childhood his mother taught him to see in God only a terrible and unforgiving judge, and these first childhood impressions remained with him throughout his life. Luther studied in Magdeburg and Erfurt and became a priest in 1507. He took a vow of monasticism during a terrible thunderstorm and then considered him “forced” until death, taken under the influence of fear.

In 1515, events occurred that caused the beginning of a schism in the Catholic Church. Pope Leo X, son of the Duke of Florence, Lawrence the Magnificent, a great patron of the arts, decided to speed up the construction of the grandiose St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, which was supposed to replace the ancient basilica. Very large sums were required for construction. To raise funds in the German states, a monopoly was given to the Fugger banking house in Augsburg, which set the matter on a very broad scale. In addition to selling letters of permission (indulgences) for the living, the Dominican monk Tetzel began selling letters for the salvation of the souls of the dead, which caused a heated protest from many theologians. When Tetzel arrived in Wittenberg, where Martin Luther was then teaching, the latter nailed 95 theses to the doors of the local church, which condemned the abuses of everyone who sold permits. The theses of 1517 made a very big impression throughout Germany, and theological debates began everywhere.

In 1520, the pope issued a bull in which, without naming Luther, he condemned his theses. The bull was met with very hostility in Germany. The Elector of Saxony refused to detain Luther, and the latter solemnly burned the bull in the square.

By this time, Martin Luther had written four theological treatises. If in the first, oh Mother of God(interpretation of the “Song of the Virgin Mary”), he remained in the church tradition, then in the other three he sharply broke with it. The second work is entitled “Towards the Christian Nobility of the German Nation.” In it, he pursued his ideas about the “universal priesthood” and called on the laity to carry out reform in the Church. In the third essay, “On the Freedom of a Christian,” he spoke of salvation by faith alone, and not by works; in the fourth, “On the Babylonian Captivity,” he rejected the Sacraments of the Priesthood, Confirmation, Marriage and Blessing of Anointing, as well as the transubstantiation of the Holy Gifts. The last years of Luther's life, after his defrocking and marriage, were spent strengthening Lutheranism in certain parts of Germany and fighting his spiritual opponents, mainly the Swiss Ulrich Zwingli. Luther died in 1545.

In 1530, the Imperial Diet met in Augsburg, to which the Lutherans presented their confession of faith, compiled by the German theologian Melanchthon. The emperor rejected the confession, but many princes and free cities accepted it, and Germany was divided into two warring camps. The Protestant princes formed the League, but the Turkish invasion of Europe temporarily changed the situation. The Emperor agreed to address the Council. Still, in 1546 religious war between Protestant and Catholic states began and ended with the defeat of the Protestants. In 1555, peace was concluded in Augsburg and the formula “Whose kingdom has religion” was adopted, subordinating the life of the Church entirely to state interests. The Augsburg Confession of Faith of 1530 has since remained the official statement of the faith of Lutheranism.

The second reformer was the Swiss Ulrich Zwingli (1484 - 1531), the son of a wealthy peasant, who received a good education in Bern and Basel. He was a student of Erasmus of Rotterdam and, like him, devoted himself to the study of the Holy Scriptures. While a priest in Zurich, he began to preach a complete transformation of church life and soon completely broke with the Catholic Church. He was against any external manifestations of faith, rejected the Mass, taught that the Eucharist is only a pious custom, performed in remembrance of the Last Supper, and did not allow any images, icons, statues, or even a cross into the premises where prayer was performed.

Zwingli was killed at the Battle of Kappel. Some of his students joined Luther, and some joined John Calvin. John Calvin (1509 - 1564) belonged to a new generation of reformers and began his activities very early. He was born in Noyon, France, into a family that was distinguished for its free-thinking. At the age of 14, he went to Paris, settled on Mount Saint Genevieve and became a diligent student at the university, despite the fact that student life was very difficult. After that, he continued his education at the faculties of law in Orleans and Bourges.

In 1535 he wrote his famous theological treatise, The Christian Institution, which is still fundamental for all Calvinists. The success of this work in France, Switzerland and, partly, in the Netherlands was exceptional. Calvin taught in it the complete predestination of some people to destruction, and others to salvation, and about the non-participation of human will in salvation.

In Geneva, Calvin and his friend Farel began to introduce the new doctrine with inexorable severity. In 1538, local authorities expelled them from Geneva, but three years later they returned there again. From 1541 to 1564, Calvin was a real dictator in Geneva and fought very cruelly with everyone who did not agree with him, putting them to death. For example, he burned the Spanish scientist Michael Servetus. Calvin's religious state was characterized by extreme intolerance towards all dissenters. Constant surveillance was established over all citizens of Geneva.

Calvinism was not limited to the Canton of Geneva. It quickly spread to France, where the highest circles of the nobility and part of the clergy sympathized with it. It soon took, both in France and especially in the Netherlands, a form of iconoclasm. Calvinists attacked monasteries and churches, destroying statues, icons and altars. During the new iconoclasm, many monuments of church art were destroyed, especially in the area of Lyon and Antwerp.

Calvinism also penetrated to the north, to Scotland, where it was led by John Knox, the founder of “Puritanism” (followers of the purity of Christian teaching). Also, followers of Calvin's religious teachings appeared in Poland, mainly among large landowners led by the Radziwill princes.

Turbulent events in European countries also affected the church life of England. In England, royal power greatly increased by the beginning of the 16th century, and at the same time the influence of the papacy weakened. The Church in England had long been partially dependent on the king and parliament, but until the reign of Henry VIII it was still subordinate to Rome. When the pope did not agree to the king's divorce from Catherine of Aragon in 1534, Parliament passed the "Act of Royal Supremacy" and the English Church broke canonical relations with Rome.

King Henry VIII limited himself to breaking with Rome and confiscating the property of monasteries and churches to the treasury, but remained a Catholic at heart. Under Henry's successor, his son Edward VI (1547-53), a reform of doctrine and worship began in England, but not in such a drastic form as in Germany and Switzerland. Communion under both types was allowed, marriages of priests were allowed, and everyone was allowed to read the Bible, translated into English under Henry. Then, after long meetings between English and visiting German theologians, a general prayer book and ritual book was published (1548) and, finally, 42 members of the Anglican confession (in 1551). To please adherents of both faiths, a peculiar mixture of Catholicism and Lutheranism was created.

Under Queen Elizabeth, the Episcopal English Church with a mixed faith was finally formed, which received the name Anglican and became the state one.

Almost simultaneously with the break of the English Church with Rome, there was a break with the papacy of the Scandinavian Churches. It was committed both in Sweden and Denmark by royal authority and was accompanied by the confiscation of church property. Both the Swedish king Gustav Vasa and the Danish kings Frederick I and Christian III introduced the Lutheran religion in their states, but with the preservation of the episcopacy, as in England.

Reformation- a social and religious-political movement in Europe (except Eastern), which took place in the 15-16 centuries, the goal of which was to reform Catholic Christianity based on the Bible.

The Protestant Reformation swept almost all of Europe and led to the emergence of new Christian faiths and churches.

In addition to Lutheranism, Calvinism, Presbyterianism, and Anglicanism, in the 16th century, about 200 different Protestant sects (groups of believers whose views differ from traditional ones) and movements appeared that could easily adapt to existence both in fragmented states and small principalities, and in strong kingdoms.

Causes of the Reformation

At the turn of the 15th-16th centuries, many Europeans were not satisfied with the church order. The language of the church - Latin - was not understandable to most believers, who could not even read the Bible. It was a shame for the peasants and townspeople, who struggled to earn every coin, to give a significant portion to the bishops and monks. Thrifty entrepreneurs were irritated by the golden robes of the priests and the expensive sculptures and paintings that decorated the churches. Small-land knights-feudal lords looked with envy at the huge lands of bishops and monasteries. Kings and princes were irritated by the interference of the Pope in their affairs. In addition, for a long time in city squares, wandering artists who made fun of fat and stupid monks who, in violation of all church rules, gorge themselves on meat, get drunk and pursue women, aroused delight.

A special situation arose in the fragmented principalities of Germany, where the power of the Pope was not limited by strong royal power. Taking advantage of this, bishops and monasteries constantly increased the exactions from believers. The German humanist Ulrich von Hutten wrote about the ministers of the church: “These are the robbers of our fatherland... They delight themselves with the blood and sweat of the Germans, fill their wombs with the offal of the poor and feed their debauchery.”

Map of Europe during the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. 1550s - 1660s

Luther's Reformation (Lutheranism)

Martin Luther (1483-1546)

In such a difficult situation, the life of Martin Luther (1483-1546) began. He was born into the family of a deeply religious miner. At the age of 14, Luther began studying at school. To get food for himself, he and his comrades wandered the streets of Magdeburg, sang psalms to the glory of the Lord and begged for alms. Who knows what the boy's fate would have been like if he had not found shelter in a rich family. After three years of study in one of best schools At that time, the 18-year-old boy entered the University of Erfurt. With unprecedented zeal, he begins studying the Bible. Thoughts about the Last Judgment, about sinful thoughts and actions did not give him peace. After graduating from university, he decides to hide from the bustle of the world in a monastery monastery. Soon he received the priesthood and a position as professor of theology at the University of Wittenberg. Luther's sermons attracted the residents of Wittenberg with their simplicity and brevity. Luther found words of consolation for every parishioner. He recalled that Jesus Christ accepted death on the cross and thereby atoned for all human sins.

Martin Luther. Hood. Lucas Cranach Sr.

Beginning of the Reformation in Germany

Martin Luther's speech marked the beginning of the Reformation.

Popular and Princely Reformations

Germany was divided into Catholics and Protestants, supporters of the “princely” and “popular” Reformation.

Calvin's Reformation (Calvinism)

Calvinism became the Reformation for the trade and craft layers of Europe. From Switzerland, Calvin's Protestant teachings penetrated into southern France, where Calvinists began to be called Huguenots.

Huguenots- a corruption of the German word "eigenosen" - "allies". This is what people in Geneva called those wishing to join the Swiss Union..

Residents of the trade and craft cities of the Netherlands also liked this teaching. Luther's teachings actively spread in the Austrian and Hungarian lands, in Poland and Lithuania, and even in the German spiritual knightly orders of the Baltic states.

Reformation in Switzerland

Reformation in England

Reformation in the Baltics

IN 1525 the master of the Teutonic Order announced that the order was becoming a secular state - Duchy of Prussia. The knights were released from monastic vows, and the master was proclaimed a duke, independent of the Pope. IN Livonian Order ordinary knights, hoping to take away lands from bishops and leaders of the order, by the middle of the 16th century declared themselves Lutherans and converted their serfs to the new faith. The order state itself was destroyed, and its possessions were divided among neighboring countries. Material from the site

Reformation in Scandinavia

The Protestant faith also penetrated into Scandinavia. Here, just on the eve of the Reformation, Swedish peasants, townspeople and knights rebelled against the power of the Danish kings. A man named Gustav Vasa, who came from a noble Swedish family. After the liberation of the capital of Sweden, Stockholm, in 1523, a meeting of the Swedish estates elected him king. In both divided states - Danish-Norwegian And Swedish the kings, wanting to strengthen their power, decided to take advantage of the beginning of the Reformation. Luther's students at the University of Wittenberg included both Danes and Swedes. When they returned to their native countries, with the assistance of the kings, they quickly translated the Bible into Swedish and Danish. IN 1527 in Sweden, and in 1536— in Denmark, Lutheranism was declared the state religion, although it was finally established only at the end of the 16th century.