What is the essence of dead souls. Analysis of “Dead Souls” Gogol

1. Chichikov’s life path.
2. The goal and means of the hero.
3. The tenacity of a businessman.

From the labors of the righteous one cannot make stone chambers.
Russian folk proverb

Traditionally, the image of Chichikov, the main character of N.V. Gogol’s poem “ Dead souls", is usually considered as clearly negative. However, is the hero so straightforward and simple as to rank him among the host of textbook villains? Can an image recreated in work of art talented master?

Chichikov's life priorities are values new era, the values of capitalism, which is replacing the feudal-serf system that persisted in Rus' for too long compared to other European countries.

Chichikov's life path, with all his might, cannot be called easy and pleasant. Early childhood Gogol’s hero was sad and monotonous: “At the beginning, life looked at him somehow sourly and unpleasantly, through some cloudy window covered with snow: no friend, no comrade in childhood!” Gogol did not say a word about any games common to a child: no, only poverty and labor - these are the memories Chichikov brought back from early childhood.

The hero’s school years were not distinguished by the brightness of his impressions: however, it was at this time that his practical talents began to reveal themselves. The father, who took his son to school, gave him parting words, which the son remembered well and which he tried to follow to the best of his ability: “If you please your boss, then, even though you don’t have time in science and God didn’t give you talent, you will put everything into action and get ahead of everyone.” ... Most of all, take care and save a penny, this thing is more reliable than anything in the world.”

Young Chichikov skillfully came up with various ways to make a profit: he did not spend anything from the money left to him by his father, but, on the contrary, increased it. His efforts to please the teacher were also not in vain. Although he did not shine with special abilities in the sciences, “upon graduation he received full honors in all sciences, a certificate and a book with golden letters for exemplary diligence and trustworthy behavior.”

Chichikov's career before he started buying " dead souls“is a string of ups and downs that revealed in full force the vitality and entrepreneurial spirit of this character’s nature.

Gogol repeatedly mentions the cleanliness and neatness of his hero, that Chichikov is always well dressed and behaves decently. Even at a time when the aspiring young official served in an insignificant position, he stood out from his colleagues in that “he knew how to maintain neatness, dress decently, give a pleasant expression to his face and even something noble in his movements.” The contrast to the hero’s external presentability is the means that he uses to achieve his goal. However, it should be noted right away that Chichikov’s goal is quite natural: he wants to have a family, children, to live in prosperity and comfort. Of course, there is nothing criminal in such a goal. Indiscriminateness in the means leading to its achievement is not so much a manifestation of Chichikov’s personal depravity as a consequence of the powerful influence on him of the environment in which he developed. The father’s instruction to “save a penny” was vividly perceived by the child’s mind: there was no talk about in what ways it was permissible to do this and in what ways it was not. Open robbery, robbery, murder, of course, in the eyes of Chichikov are crimes. As for various economic frauds, Gogol’s hero views them as a completely normal way of doing business. It must be emphasized again: Chichikov was not the only one who held this opinion. Let’s remember Gogol’s mayor from the comedy “The Inspector General”. He, too, was sincerely convinced that bribes and embezzlement were hardly an institution of God.

For such an outlook on life, it is not so much Chichikov himself who is to blame, but rather the system of government in Russia as a whole, the prevailing universally respectful attitude towards people who have money, regardless of how they acquired it, and a disdainful attitude towards those who do not have money, even if they honestly served their homeland, sparing no effort and life, like Captain Kopeikin, for example. Chichikov’s actions are primarily driven by a natural desire to get out of poverty and provide himself with a reliable rear. When Chichikov laments that he lost his position in customs after machinations with smugglers, he reasons like this: “Why me? Why did trouble befall me? Who yawns for positions? everyone buys. I didn’t make anyone unhappy, I didn’t rob a widow, I didn’t let anyone go around the world, I used from the excess, I took where everyone would have taken, if I hadn’t taken advantage, others would have taken advantage. Why do others prosper, and why should I perish as a worm?” It cannot be said that these arguments are completely devoid of justice: in fact, someone has appropriated more than Chichikov, and lives for his own pleasure, without experiencing the slightest remorse or any concern on the part of the authorities.

Gogol shows many positive traits your hero. So, Chichikov has a huge reserve of patience. There was so much he had to endure, especially at the beginning of his career: the monotony of clerical work, the drunken faces of other officials, the indifference of the first boss to the zeal of the young official. How many times did it seem that luck favored Chichikov, and then collapse befell him, and he had to start all over again. “We must do justice to the irresistible force of his character. After all that would have been enough, if not to kill, then to cool and pacify a person forever, the incomprehensible passion in him did not go out.” Those outlandish machinations that Chichikov indulges in testify to his intelligence, enterprise and courage.

By nature, Chichikov is an adventurer. He is one of those people who at all times relentlessly pursued the goal, despite the obstacles. However, only a few choose a goal that is difficult to achieve in its sublimity, such as spiritual purification, creative self-realization, or improving the life of society. The goal of the vast majority of people is much more modest - a life of prosperity, health, and a strong family. Chichikov’s tragedy is that, despite his extraordinary practical talents, he cannot realize them in activities that would be both legal and sufficiently profitable. It makes no sense to accuse Chichikov of legal nihilism: the behavior that Gogol’s hero demonstrates is only a reproduction of the patterns prevailing in the society that raised him.

Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol’s work “Dead Souls” is one of the author’s most striking works. This poem, the plot of which is related to the description of Russian reality of the 19th century, is of great value for Russian literature. It was also significant for Gogol himself. No wonder he called it a “national poem” and explained that in this way he tried to expose the shortcomings of the Russian Empire, and then change the appearance of his homeland for the better.

The birth of the genre

The idea for Gogol to write “Dead Souls” was suggested to the author by Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. At first, the work was conceived as a light humorous novel. However, after work began on the work “Dead Souls,” the genre in which the text was originally intended to be presented was changed.

The fact is that Gogol considered the plot to be very original and gave the presentation a different, deeper meaning. As a result, a year after the start of work on the work “Dead Souls,” its genre became more extensive. The author decided that his brainchild should become nothing more than a poem.

Main idea

The writer divided his work into 3 parts. In the first of them, he decided to point out all the shortcomings that took place in his contemporary society. In the second part, he planned to show how the process of correcting people takes place, and in the third - the lives of heroes who have already changed for the better.

In 1841, Gogol completed writing the first volume of Dead Souls. The plot of the book shocked the entire reading country, causing a lot of controversy. After the release of the first part, the author began work on a continuation of his poem. However, he was never able to finish what he started. The second volume of the poem seemed imperfect to him, and nine days before his death he burned the only copy of the manuscript. Only drafts of the first five chapters have been preserved for us, which today are considered a separate work.

Unfortunately, the trilogy remained unfinished. But the poem “Dead Souls” should have had significant meaning. Its main purpose was to describe the movement of the soul, which went through a fall, purification, and then rebirth. The main character of the poem, Chichikov, had to go through this path to the ideal.

Plot

The story told in the first volume of the poem “Dead Souls” takes us to the nineteenth century. It tells the story of a journey across Russia undertaken by the main character, Pavel Ivanovich Chichikov, to acquire so-called dead souls from landowners. The plot of the work provides the reader with a complete picture of the morals and life of the people of that time.

Let's look at the chapters of "Dead Souls" with their plot in a little more detail. This will give a general idea of a vibrant literary work.

Chapter one. Start

Where does the work “Dead Souls” begin? The topic raised in it describes the events that took place at a time when the French were finally expelled from Russian territory.

At the beginning of the story, Pavel Ivanovich Chichikov, who held the position of collegiate adviser, arrived in one of the provincial cities. When analyzing “Dead Souls,” the image of the main character becomes clear. The author shows him as a middle-aged man with an average build and good appearance. Pavel Ivanovich is extremely inquisitive. Situations arise when one can even talk about his intrusiveness and annoyingness. So, from the tavern servant he is interested in the owner’s income, and also tries to find out about all the city officials and the most noble landowners. He is also interested in the state of the region to which he arrived.

A collegiate advisor does not sit alone. He visits all officials, finding the right approach to them and choosing words that are pleasant for people. That is why they treat him just as well, which even surprises Chichikov a little, who has experienced many negative reactions towards himself and even survived an assassination attempt.

The main purpose of Pavel Ivanovich’s arrival is to find a place for a quiet life. To do this, while attending a party in the governor’s house, he meets two landowners - Manilov and Sobakevich. At a dinner with the police chief, Chichikov became friends with the landowner Nozdryov.

Chapter two. Manilov

The continuation of the plot is connected with Chichikov’s trip to Manilov. The landowner met the official on the threshold of his estate and led him into the house. The road to Manilov's home lay among gazebos on which signs were posted indicating that these were places for reflection and solitude.

When analyzing “Dead Souls,” one can easily characterize Manilov based on this decoration. This is a landowner who has no problems, but at the same time is too cloying. Manilov says that the arrival of such a guest is comparable to a sunny day and the happiest holiday. He invites Chichikov to dinner. Present at the table are the mistress of the estate and the two sons of the landowner - Themistoclus and Alcides.

After a hearty lunch, Pavel Ivanovich decides to talk about the reason that brought him to these lands. Chichikov wants to buy peasants who have already died, but their death has not yet been reflected in the audit certificate. His goal is to draw up all the documents, supposedly these peasants are still alive.

How does Manilov react to this? He has dead souls. However, the landowner is initially surprised by this proposal. But then he agrees to the deal. Chichikov leaves the estate and goes to Sobakevich. Meanwhile, Manilov begins to dream about how Pavel Ivanovich will live next door to him and what good friends they will become after he moves.

Chapter three. Getting to know the Box

On the way to Sobakevich, Selifan (Chichikov’s coachman) accidentally missed the right turn. And then it began to rain heavily, and Chichikov fell into the mud. All this forces the official to look for accommodation for the night, which he found with the landowner Nastasya Petrovna Korobochka. Analysis of “Dead Souls” indicates that this lady is afraid of everything and everyone. However, Chichikov did not waste time and offered to purchase the deceased peasants from her. At first the old woman was intractable, but after the visiting official promised to buy all the lard and hemp from her (but next time), she agrees.

The deal was completed. The box treated Chichikov to pancakes and pies. Pavel Ivanovich, having eaten a hearty meal, moved on. And the landowner began to worry very much that she did not take enough money for the dead souls.

Chapter Four. Nozdryov

After visiting Korobochka, Chichikov drove onto the main road. He decided to visit a tavern he came across along the way to have a little snack. And here the author wanted to give this action some mystery. He does lyrical digressions. In “Dead Souls” he reflects on the properties of appetite inherent in people like the main character of his work.

While in the tavern, Chichikov meets Nozdryov. The landowner complained that he lost money at the fair. Then they follow to Nozdryov’s estate, where Pavel Ivanovich intends to make good money.

By analyzing “Dead Souls,” you can understand what Nozdryov is like. This is a person who really loves all kinds of stories. He tells them everywhere he goes. After a hearty lunch, Chichikov decides to bargain. However, Pavel Ivanovich cannot beg for dead souls or buy them. Nozdryov sets his own conditions, which consist of an exchange or purchase in addition to something. The landowner even suggests using dead souls as bets in the game.

Serious disagreements arise between Chichikov and Nozdrev, and they postpone the conversation until the morning. The next day the men agreed to play checkers. However, Nozdryov tried to deceive his opponent, which was noticed by Chichikov. In addition, it turned out that the landowner was on trial. And Chichikov had no choice but to run when he saw the police captain.

Chapter Five. Sobakevich

Sobakevich continues the images of landowners in “Dead Souls”. It is to him that Chichikov comes to him after Nozdryov. The estate he visited was a match for its owner. Just as strong. The owner treats the guest to dinner, talking during the meal about city officials, calling them all swindlers.

Chichikov talks about his plans. They did not frighten Sobakevich at all, and the men quickly moved on to concluding the deal. However, here troubles began for Chichikov. Sobakevich began to bargain, talking about the most best qualities already deceased peasants. However, Chichikov does not need such characteristics, and he insists on his own. And here Sobakevich begins to hint at the illegality of such a deal, threatening to tell anyone about it. Chichikov had to agree to the price offered by the landowner. They sign the document, still fearing a trick from each other.

There are lyrical digressions in “Dead Souls” in the fifth chapter. The author ends the story about Chichikov’s visit to Sobakevich with discussions about the Russian language. Gogol emphasizes the diversity, strength and richness of the Russian language. Here he points out the peculiarity of our people to give everyone nicknames associated with various offenses or the course of circumstances. They do not leave their owner until his death.

Chapter six. Plyushkin

Very interesting hero is Plyushkin. "Dead Souls" shows him as a very greedy person. The landowner does not even throw away his old sole that has fallen off his boot and carries it into the already quite decent pile of similar rubbish.

However Plyushkin dead sells souls very quickly and without haggling. Pavel Ivanovich is very happy about this and refuses the tea with crackers offered by the owner.

Chapter seven. Deal

Having achieved his initial goal, Chichikov is sent to the civil chamber to finally resolve the issue. Manilov and Sobakevich had already arrived in the city. The chairman agrees to become the attorney for Plyushkin and all other sellers. The deal took place, and champagne was opened for the health of the new landowner.

Chapter eight. Rumors. Ball

The city began to discuss Chichikov. Many decided that he was a millionaire. Girls began to go crazy for him and send love messages. Once at the governor's ball, he literally finds himself in the arms of the ladies. However, his attention is attracted by a sixteen-year-old blonde. At this time, Nozdryov comes to the ball, loudly inquiring about the purchase of dead souls. Chichikov had to leave in complete confusion and sadness.

Chapter Nine. Profit or love?

At this time, the landowner Korobochka arrived in the city. She decided to clarify whether she had made a mistake with the cost of dead souls. The news about the amazing purchase and sale becomes the property of the city residents. People believe that dead souls are a cover for Chichikov, but in fact he dreams of taking away the blonde he likes, who is the daughter of the governor.

Chapter ten. Versions

The city literally came to life. News appears one after another. They talk about the appointment of a new governor, the presence of supporting papers about false banknotes, about an insidious robber who escaped from the police, etc. Many versions arise, and they all relate to Chichikov’s personality. The excitement of people negatively affects the prosecutor. He dies from the blow.

Chapter Eleven. Purpose of the event

Chichikov does not know what the city is talking about about him. He goes to the governor, but he is not received there. In addition, the people he meets on the way shy away from the official in different directions. Everything becomes clear after Nozdryov arrives at the hotel. The landowner tries to convince Chichikov that he tried to help him kidnap the governor’s daughter.

And here Gogol decides to talk about his hero and why Chichikov buys dead souls. The author tells the reader about his childhood and schooling, where Pavel Ivanovich already showed the ingenuity given to him by nature. Gogol also talks about Chichikov’s relationships with his comrades and teachers, about his service and work in the commission located in a government building, as well as about his transfer to serve in customs.

The analysis of “Dead Souls” clearly indicates the inclinations of the protagonist, which he used to complete his deal described in the work. After all, in all his places of work, Pavel Ivanovich managed to make a lot of money by concluding fake contracts and conspiracies. In addition, he did not disdain working with smuggling. In order to avoid criminal punishment, Chichikov resigned. Having switched to work as an attorney, he immediately formed an insidious plan in his head. Chichikov wanted to purchase dead souls in order to pawn them, as if they were alive, in the treasury in order to receive money. Next in his plans was the purchase of a village in order to provide for future offspring.

In part, Gogol justifies his hero. He considers him the owner, who with his mind has built such an interesting chain of transactions.

Images of landowners

These heroes of Dead Souls are especially vividly presented in five chapters. Moreover, each of them is dedicated to only one landowner. There is a certain pattern in the placement of chapters. The images of the landowners of “Dead Souls” are arranged in them according to the degree of their degradation. Let's remember who was the first of them? Manilov. “Dead Souls” describes this landowner as a lazy and dreamy, sentimental and practically unadapted person to life. This is confirmed by many details, for example, a farm that has fallen into disrepair and a house standing in the south, open to all winds. The author, using the amazing artistic power of the word, shows his reader the deadness of Manilov and his worthlessness life path. After all, behind external attractiveness there is a spiritual emptiness.

What other vivid images were created in the work “Dead Souls”? The heroic landowners in the image of Korobochka are people who are focused only on their farm. It is not without reason that at the end of the third chapter the author draws an analogy between this landowner and all aristocratic ladies. The box is distrustful and stingy, superstitious and stubborn. In addition, she is narrow-minded, petty and narrow-minded.

Next in terms of degree of degradation comes Nozdryov. Like many other landowners, he does not change with age, not even trying to develop internally. The image of Nozdryov represents a portrait of a reveler and a braggart, a drunkard and a cheater. This landowner is passionate and energetic, but all of him positive qualities are wasted. The image of Nozdryov is as typical as that of previous landowners. And this is emphasized by the author in his statements.

Describing Sobakevich, Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol resorts to comparing him with a bear. In addition to clumsiness, the author describes his parodically inverted heroic power, earthiness and rudeness.

But the extreme degree of degradation is described by Gogol in the image of the richest landowner in the province - Plyushkin. During his biography, this man went from a thrifty owner to a half-crazy miser. And it was not social conditions that led him to this state. Plyushkin's moral decline provoked loneliness.

Thus, all landowners in the poem “Dead Souls” are united by such traits as idleness and inhumanity, as well as spiritual emptiness. And he contrasts this world of truly “dead souls” with faith in the inexhaustible potential of the “mysterious” Russian people. It is not for nothing that at the end of the work the image of an endless road along which a trio of birds rushes appears. And in this movement the writer’s confidence in the possibility of the spiritual transformation of humanity and in the great destiny of Russia is manifested.

“Dead Souls” is a poem for the ages. The plasticity of the depicted reality, the comic nature of situations and the artistic skill of N.V. Gogol paints an image of Russia not only of the past, but also of the future. Grotesque satirical reality in harmony with patriotic notes create an unforgettable melody of life that sounds through the centuries.

Collegiate adviser Pavel Ivanovich Chichikov goes to distant provinces to buy serfs. However, he is not interested in people, but only in the names of the dead. This is necessary to submit the list to the board of trustees, which “promises” a lot of money. For a nobleman with so many peasants, all doors were open. To implement his plans, he pays visits to landowners and officials of the city of NN. They all reveal their selfish nature, so the hero manages to get what he wants. He is also planning a profitable marriage. However, the result is disastrous: the hero is forced to flee, as his plans become publicly known thanks to the landowner Korobochka.

History of creation

N.V. Gogol believed A.S. Pushkin as his teacher, who “gave” the grateful student a story about Chichikov’s adventures. The poet was sure that only Nikolai Vasilyevich, who has a unique talent from God, could realize this “idea”.

The writer loved Italy and Rome. In the land of the great Dante, he began work on a book suggesting a three-part composition in 1835. The poem was supposed to be similar to Dante's Divine Comedy, depicting the hero's descent into hell, his wanderings in purgatory and the resurrection of his soul in paradise.

The creative process continued for six years. The idea of a grandiose painting, depicting not only “all Rus'” present, but also the future, revealed “the untold riches of the Russian spirit.” In February 1837, Pushkin died, whose “sacred testament” for Gogol became “Dead Souls”: “Not a single line was written without me imagining him before me.” The first volume was completed in the summer of 1841, but did not immediately find its reader. The censorship was outraged by “The Tale of Captain Kopeikin”, and the title led to bewilderment. I had to make concessions by starting the title with the intriguing phrase “The Adventures of Chichikov.” Therefore, the book was published only in 1842.

After some time, Gogol writes the second volume, but, dissatisfied with the result, burns it.

Meaning of the name

The title of the work causes conflicting interpretations. The oxymoron technique used gives rise to numerous questions to which you want to get answers as quickly as possible. The title is symbolic and ambiguous, so the “secret” is not revealed to everyone.

In the literal sense, “dead souls” are representatives of the common people who have passed into another world, but are still listed as their masters. The concept is gradually being rethought. The “form” seems to “come to life”: real serfs, with their habits and shortcomings, appear before the reader’s gaze.

Characteristics of the main characters

Pavel Ivanovich Chichikov is a “mediocre gentleman.” Somewhat cloying manners in dealing with people are not without sophistication. Well-mannered, neat and delicate. “Not handsome, but not bad-looking, not... fat, nor.... thin..." Calculating and careful. He collects unnecessary trinkets in his little chest: maybe it will come in handy! Seeks profit in everything. The generation of the worst sides of an enterprising and energetic person of a new type, opposed to landowners and officials. We wrote about him in more detail in the essay "".
Manilov - “knight of the void”. A blond "sweet" talker with "blue eyes." He covers up the poverty of thought and avoidance of real difficulties with a beautiful phrase. He lacks living aspirations and any interests. His faithful companions are fruitless fantasy and thoughtless chatter.
The box is “club-headed”. A vulgar, stupid, stingy and tight-fisted nature. She cut herself off from everything around her, shutting herself up in her estate - the “box”. She turned into a stupid and greedy woman. Limited, stubborn and unspiritual.
Nozdryov is a “historical person”. He can easily lie whatever he wants and deceive anyone. Empty, absurd. He thinks of himself as broad-minded. However, his actions expose a careless, chaotic, weak-willed and at the same time arrogant, shameless “tyrant.” Record holder for getting into tricky and ridiculous situations.
Sobakevich is “a patriot of the Russian stomach.” Outwardly it resembles a bear: clumsy and irrepressible. Completely incapable of understanding the most basic things. A special type of “storage device” that can quickly adapt to the new requirements of our time. He is not interested in anything except running a household. we described in the essay of the same name.
Plyushkin - “a hole in humanity.” A creature of unknown gender. A striking example of moral decline, which has completely lost its natural appearance. The only character (except Chichikov) who has a biography that “reflects” the gradual process of personality degradation. A complete nonentity. Plyushkin’s manic hoarding “pours out” into “cosmic” proportions. And the more this passion takes possession of him, the less of a person remains in him. We analyzed his image in detail in the essay .

Genre and composition

Initially, the work began as an adventurous picaresque novel. But the breadth of the events described and the historical truthfulness, as if “compressed” together, gave rise to “talking” about the realistic method. Making precise remarks, inserting philosophical arguments, addressing different generations, Gogol imbued “his brainchild” with lyrical digressions. One cannot but agree with the opinion that Nikolai Vasilyevich’s creation is a comedy, since it actively uses the techniques of irony, humor and satire, which most fully reflect the absurdity and arbitrariness of the “squadron of flies that dominates Rus'.”

The composition is circular: the chaise, which entered the city of NN at the beginning of the story, leaves it after all the vicissitudes that happened to the hero. Episodes are woven into this “ring”, without which the integrity of the poem is violated. The first chapter provides a description of the provincial city of NN and local officials. From the second to the sixth chapters, the author introduces readers to the landowner estates of Manilov, Korobochka, Nozdryov, Sobakevich and Plyushkin. Chapters seven - ten - satirical image officials, registration of completed transactions. The string of events listed above ends with a ball, where Nozdryov “narrates” about Chichikov’s scam. The reaction of society to his statement is unambiguous - gossip, which, like a snowball, is overgrown with fables that have found refraction, including in the short story (“The Tale of Captain Kopeikin”) and the parable (about Kif Mokievich and Mokiya Kifovich). The introduction of these episodes allows us to emphasize that the fate of the fatherland directly depends on the people living in it. You cannot look indifferently at the disgrace happening around you. Certain forms of protest are maturing in the country. The eleventh chapter is a biography of the hero who forms the plot, explaining what motivated him when committing this or that act.

The connecting compositional thread is the image of the road (you can learn more about this by reading the essay “ » ), symbolizing the path that the state takes in its development “under the modest name of Rus'.”

Why does Chichikov need dead souls?

Chichikov is not just cunning, but also pragmatic. His sophisticated mind is ready to “make candy” out of nothing. Not having sufficient capital, he, being a good psychologist, having gone through a good life school, mastering the art of “flattering everyone” and fulfilling his father’s behest to “save a penny,” starts a great speculation. It consists of a simple deception of “those in power” in order to “warm up their hands”, in other words, to gain a huge amount of money, thereby providing for themselves and their future family, which Pavel Ivanovich dreamed of.

The names of dead peasants bought for next to nothing were entered into a document that Chichikov could take to the treasury chamber under the guise of collateral in order to obtain a loan. He would have pawned the serfs like a brooch in a pawnshop, and could have re-mortgaged them all his life, since none of the officials checked the physical condition of the people. For this money, the businessman would have bought real workers and an estate, and would have lived in grand style, enjoying the favor of the nobles, because the nobles measured the wealth of the landowner in the number of souls (peasants were then called “souls” in noble slang). In addition, Gogol's hero hoped to gain trust in society and profitably marry a rich heiress.

main idea

Hymn to the homeland and people, distinguishing feature whose hard work sounds on the pages of the poem. The masters of golden hands became famous for their inventions and their creativity. The Russian man is always “rich in invention.” But there are also those citizens who hinder the development of the country. These are vicious officials, ignorant and inactive landowners and swindlers like Chichikov. For their own good, the good of Russia and the world, they must take the path of correction, realizing the ugliness of their inner world. To do this, Gogol mercilessly ridicules them throughout the entire first volume, but in subsequent parts of the work the author intended to show the resurrection of the spirit of these people using the example of the main character. Perhaps he felt the falseness of the subsequent chapters, lost faith that his dream was feasible, so he burned it along with the second part of “Dead Souls.”

Nevertheless, the author showed that the main wealth of the country is the broad soul of the people. It is no coincidence that this word is included in the title. The writer believed that the revival of Russia would begin with the revival human souls, pure, untainted by any sins, selfless. Not just those who believe in the free future of the country, but those who make a lot of effort on this fast road to happiness. “Rus, where are you going?” This question runs like a refrain throughout the book and emphasizes the main thing: the country must live in constant movement towards the better, advanced, progressive. Only on this path “do other peoples and states give her the way.” We wrote a separate essay about Russia’s path: ?

Why did Gogol burn the second volume of Dead Souls?

At some point, the thought of the messiah begins to dominate in the writer’s mind, allowing him to “foresee” the revival of Chichikov and even Plyushkin. Gogol hopes to reverse the progressive “transformation” of a person into a “dead man”. But, faced with reality, the author experiences deep disappointment: the heroes and their destinies emerge from the pen as far-fetched and lifeless. It didn't work out. The impending crisis in worldview was the reason for the destruction of the second book.

In the surviving excerpts from the second volume, it is clearly visible that the writer portrays Chichikov not in the process of repentance, but in flight towards the abyss. He still succeeds in adventures, dresses in a devilish red tailcoat and breaks the law. His revelation does not bode well, because in his reaction the reader will not see a sudden insight or a hint of shame. He doesn’t even believe in the possibility of such fragments ever existing. Gogol did not want to sacrifice artistic truth even for the sake of realizing his own plan.

Issues

Thorns on the path of development of the Motherland are the main problem in the poem “Dead Souls” that the author was worried about. These include bribery and embezzlement of officials, infantilism and inactivity of the nobility, ignorance and poverty of the peasants. The writer sought to make his contribution to the prosperity of Russia, condemning and ridiculing vices, educating new generations of people. For example, Gogol despised doxology as a cover for the emptiness and idleness of existence. The life of a citizen should be useful to society, but most of the characters in the poem are downright harmful.
Moral problems. He views the lack of moral standards among representatives of the ruling class as the result of their ugly passion for hoarding. The landowners are ready to shake the soul out of the peasant for the sake of profit. Also, the problem of selfishness comes to the fore: nobles, like officials, think only about their own interests, the homeland for them is an empty, weightless word. High society does not care about the common people, they simply use them for their own purposes.
The crisis of humanism. People are sold like animals, lost at cards like things, pawned like jewelry. Slavery is legal and is not considered immoral or unnatural. Gogol illuminated the problem of serfdom in Russia globally, showing both sides of the coin: the slave mentality inherent in the serf, and the tyranny of the owner, confident in his superiority. All these are the consequences of tyranny that permeates relationships in all levels of society. It corrupts people and ruins the country.
The author’s humanism is manifested in his attention to “ little man”, a critical exposure of the evils of the state system. Gogol did not even try to avoid political problems. He described a bureaucracy that functioned only on the basis of bribery, nepotism, embezzlement and hypocrisy.
Gogol's characters are characterized by the problem of ignorance and moral blindness. Because of it, they do not see their moral squalor and are not able to independently get out of the quagmire of vulgarity that drags them down.

What is unique about the work?

Adventurism, realistic reality, a sense of the presence of the irrational, philosophical reasoning about earthly good - all this is closely intertwined, creating an “encyclopedic” picture of the first half of the 19th century centuries.

Gogol achieves this by using various techniques of satire, humor, visual means, numerous details, a wealth of vocabulary, and compositional features.

Symbolism plays an important role. Falling into the mud “predicts” the future exposure of the main character. The spider weaves its webs to capture its next victim. Like an “unpleasant” insect, Chichikov skillfully runs his “business”, “entwining” landowners and officials with noble lies. “sounds” like the pathos of Rus'’s forward movement and affirms human self-improvement.
We observe the heroes through the prism of “comic” situations, apt author’s expressions and characteristics given by other characters, sometimes built on the antithesis: “he was a prominent man” - but only “at first glance.”
The vices of the heroes of Dead Souls become a continuation of the positive character traits. For example, Plyushkin’s monstrous stinginess is a distortion of his former thrift and thriftiness.
In small lyrical “inserts” there are the writer’s thoughts, difficult thoughts, and an anxious “I.” In them we feel the highest creative message: to help humanity change for the better.
The fate of people who create works for the people or not to please “those in power” does not leave Gogol indifferent, because in literature he saw a force capable of “re-educating” society and promoting its civilized development. Social strata of society, their position in relation to everything national: culture, language, traditions - occupy a serious place in the author’s digressions. When it comes to Rus' and its future, through the centuries we hear the confident voice of the “prophet”, predicting the difficult, but aimed at a bright dream, future of the Fatherland.
Makes me sad philosophical reflections about the frailty of existence, about lost youth and impending old age. Therefore, it is so natural to have a tender “fatherly” appeal to youth, on whose energy, hard work and education depends which “path” the development of Russia will take.
The language is truly folk. The forms of colloquial, literary and written business speech are harmoniously woven into the fabric of the poem. Rhetorical questions and exclamations, the rhythmic construction of individual phrases, the use of Slavicisms, archaisms, sonorous epithets create a certain structure of speech that sounds solemn, excited and sincere, without a shadow of irony. When describing landowners' estates and their owners, vocabulary characteristic of everyday speech is used. The image of the bureaucratic world is saturated with the vocabulary of the depicted environment. we described in the essay of the same name.
The solemnity of comparisons, high style, combined with original speech, create a sublimely ironic manner of narration, serving to debunk the base, vulgar world of the owners.

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Many people associate the poem “Dead Souls” with mysticism, and for good reason. Gogol was the first Russian writer to combine the supernatural with reality. The second volume of Dead Souls, the reasons for the burning of which are still debated to this day, has become synonymous with an unrealized plan. The first volume is a guide to the life of the Russian nobility in the 1830s, an encyclopedia of landowner and bureaucratic sins. Memorable images, lyrical digressions filled with deep thoughts, subtle satire - all this, coupled with the artistic talent of the author, not only helps to understand the specific features of the era, but also brings true reading pleasure.

When it comes to Russian literature of the first half of the nineteenth century, two writers most often come to mind: Pushkin and Gogol. But not everyone, however, knows the following interesting fact: it was Pushkin who suggested to his friend the themes of “The Inspector General” and “Dead Souls”. The poet himself extracted the idea from the story of fugitive peasants who did not have documents, who took the names of the dead and thus did not allow a single death to be registered in the city of Bendery.

Having picked up the idea, Gogol began to develop a general plan. On October 7, 1835, he writes to Pushkin (this is when the documented history of the creation of the work begins):

I started writing Dead Souls. The plot stretches out into a long novel and, it seems, will be very funny.

Gogol's idea, according to one version, was to create a poem modeled after Dante Alighieri's The Divine Comedy. The first volume is hell. The second is purgatory. The third is heaven. We can only guess whether this was really the author’s plan, and also why Gogol did not finish the poem. There are two versions on this matter:

N.V. Gogol was a believer and listened to all the recommendations of his confessor (the priest who accepted his confessions and advised him). It was his confessor who ordered him to burn “Dead Souls” entirely, since he saw in them something ungodly and unworthy of a Christian. But the first volume had already been distributed so widely that it was impossible to destroy all copies. But the second one was very vulnerable at the preparation stage and fell victim to the author.
The writer created the first volume with enthusiasm and was pleased with it, but the second volume was artificial and strained, because it corresponded to Dante's concept. If hell in Russia was depicted without difficulty, then heaven and purgatory did not correspond to reality and could not be depicted without a stretch. Gogol did not want to betray himself and try to do something that was too far from the truth and alien to him.

Genre, direction

The main question is why the creation “Dead Souls” is called a poem. The answer is simple: Gogol himself defined the genre this way (obviously, in terms of structure, language and number of characters, this epic work, more precisely - a novel). Perhaps this was his way of emphasizing genre originality: equality of the epic (the actual description of Chichikov’s journey, way of life, characters) and lyrical (the author’s thoughts) principles. According to a less common version, Gogol made a reference to Pushkin, or set his work in contrast to “Eugene Onegin”, which, on the contrary, is called a novel, although it has all the signs of a poem.

WITH literary direction easier to understand. It is obvious that the writer resorts to realism. This is indicated by a fairly scrupulous description of the noble way of life, especially estates and landowners. The choice of direction is explained by the demiurgic task that Gogol chose for himself. In one work, he undertook to describe the whole of Russia, to bring to the surface all the bureaucratic dirt, all the chaos going on both in the country and within each civil servant. Other trends simply do not have the necessary tools; Gogol’s realism does not get along with, say, romanticism.

Meaning of the name

The title is probably the most famous oxymoron in the Russian language. The very concept of the soul includes the concept of immortality and dynamism.

It is obvious that dead souls are the subject around which Chichikov’s machinations and, accordingly, all the events of the poem are built. But the poem is named not only and not so much to denote an extraordinary product, but because of the landowners who willingly sell or even donate souls. They themselves are dead, but not physically, but spiritually. It is these people, according to Gogol, who make up the contingent of hell; it is them (if you believe the hypothesis about borrowing the composition from Dante) that heaven awaits after the atonement of sins. Only in the third volume could they become “alive”.

Composition

The main feature of the composition “Dead Souls” is the ring dynamics. Chichikov enters the city of NN, makes a journey within it, during which he makes the necessary acquaintances and carries out his planned scam, looks at the ball, after which he leaves - the circle closes.

In addition, acquaintances with landowners occur in descending order: from the least “dead soul”, Manilov, to Plyushkin, mired in debts and problems. The story of Captain Kopeikin, woven by the author into the tenth chapter as the story of one of the employees, is intended to show the mutual influence of man and the state. It is noteworthy that Chichikov’s biography is described in last chapter, after his chaise left the city.

The essence

The main character, Pavel Ivanovich Chichikov, arrives in provincial town NN with the goal of buying up dead souls from landowners (supposedly for withdrawal to the Kherson province, where land was distributed for free), pawning them on the board of guardians and receiving two hundred rubles for each. In a word, he passionately wanted to get rich and did not hesitate to use any methods. Upon arrival, he immediately meets government officials and charms them with his manners. No one suspects what a brilliant but dishonest idea lies at the heart of all his activities.

At first, everything went smoothly, the landowners were happy to meet the hero, sold or even gave him souls, and invited him to visit them again. However, the ball that Chichikov attends before leaving nearly deprived him of his reputation and nearly derailed his scheme. Rumors and gossip about his fraud begin to spread, but the swindler manages to leave the city.

The main characters and their characteristics

Pavel Ivanovich Chichikov- "middle-class gentleman." He really is an average character in everything: “not handsome, but not bad-looking, neither too fat nor too thin; I can’t say that I’m old, but I can’t say that I’m too young.” From the eleventh chapter we learn that his character was largely determined by his father’s instructions to obey teachers and superiors in everything, and also to save a penny. Toadying, cloying in communication, hypocrisy - all these are means for fulfilling the father's decree. In addition, the hero has a sharp mind, he is characterized by cunning and dexterity, without which the idea with dead souls. You can learn more about the hero from the Many-Wise Litrecon.

The images of landowners are described in accordance with the chronology of their appearance in the work.

Manilov- the first landowner to meet Chichikov and stand on a par with him in terms of sweetness and vulgar mannerisms. But the motives for Chichikov’s behavior are clearly defined, while Manilov is gentle in himself. Soft and dreamy. If these qualities were supported by activity, his character could be classified as positive. However, everything Manilov lives by is limited to demagoguery and having his head in the clouds. Manilov - from the word beckons. It’s easy to get bogged down in him and his estate and lose your bearings. However, Chichikov, faithful to his task, receives souls and continues on his way...
A box he meets by chance when he cannot find his way. She gives him a place to stay for the night. Like Chichikov, Korobochka strives to increase her wealth, but she lacks mental acuity and is “club-headed.” Her surname symbolizes a state of detachment from the outside world, limitation; she closed herself in her estate as if in a box, trying to see benefit in every insignificant detail. You can find out more about this image in.
Nozdryov– a real playmaker. This is indicated at least by the fact that Chichikov’s meeting with him took place in a tavern. Nozdryov whiles away his days in such establishments. He is not involved in the affairs of his estate, but he drinks a lot and squanders money at cards. Self-centered, vain. He tries in every possible way to arouse interest in his person by telling fables that he himself composed. However, we should give him his due - he is the only landowner who refused to sell his soul to Chichikov.
Sobakevich- a bear in human form. Also clumsy, he also sleeps a lot and eats even more. Food is the main joy in his life. And after eating - sleep. He feeds Chichikov almost to death, which is reminiscent of Manilov, who also seems to “entangle the wanderer,” detaining him on the estate. However, Sobakevich is amazingly pragmatic. Everything in his household is of good quality, but without excessive pretentiousness. He bargains with the main character for a long time, and ends up selling many souls at a favorable price.
Plyushkin- “a hole in humanity.” He abandoned the affairs of the estate, does not look after his own appearance so much so that at the first meeting it is difficult to determine his gender. His passion for hoarding is the apotheosis of stinginess. His estate brings only losses, there is barely enough food to survive (it spoils and rots in the barns), the peasants die. An ideal situation for Chichikov, who buys many souls for next to nothing. It is worth noting the connection between these characters. Only their biographies are given by the author; nothing is said about the past of the others. This may serve as a basis for the hypothesis that they could go through purgatory (the second volume) and go to heaven in the third. The Many-wise Litrekon wrote more about this image in a small one.
Captain Kopeikin- great veteran Patriotic War. He lost an arm and a leg, and therefore had to stop working. He went to St. Petersburg to beg for benefits, however, having received nothing, he returned to his hometown and, according to rumors, became a robber. This character embodied the image of an oppressed people rejected by the state. It is noteworthy that the edition of the fragment, permitted by the censorship of that time, carries a diametrically opposite message: the state, unable to do so, helps the veteran, and he, despite this, goes against him. You can learn about the role and significance of this story from.
Three bird, appearing at the very end of the poem, embodies Rus' and is also one of the characters. Where is she going? Chichikov's journey is the historical path of the country. His main problem is the lack of a home. He can't come anywhere. Odysseus had Ithaca, but Chichikov only has a chaise, moving in an unknown direction. Russia, according to the author, is also in search of its place in the world and, of course, will find it.
Author's image, revealed through lyrical digressions, brings a pinch of sanity into the swamp of sin and vice. He sarcastically describes his heroes and reflects on their destinies, drawing funny parallels. His image combines cynicism and hope, a critical mind and faith in the future. One of the most famous quotes written by Gogol on his own behalf is “What Russian doesn’t like driving fast?” - is familiar even to those who have not read the poem.
The system of images introduced by Gogol still finds correspondence in reality. We meet walking Nozdryovs, sleepy Manilovs, enterprising opportunists like Chichikov. But Russia is still moving in an unclear direction, still looking for its “home”.

Topics and issues

The main theme raised in the poem is Historical path of Russia(in a broader sense - the theme of the road). The author tries to comprehend the imperfection of the bureaucratic apparatus that led to the current state of affairs. After the publication of Gogol's work, they criticized him for his lack of patriotism and for putting Russia in a bad light. He foresaw this and gave an answer to the skeptics in one of the digressions (the beginning of the seventh chapter), where he compared the fate of a writer who glorifies the great, the sublime, with the fate of the one who dared to “call out everything that is every minute before the eyes and which indifferent eyes do not see, all the terrible, stunning mud of little things that entangle our lives, the whole depth of cold, fragmented, everyday characters with which our earthly, sometimes bitter and boring path is teeming, and with the strong force of an inexorable chisel, who dared to expose them prominently and brightly to the eyes of the people!” True patriot- not the one who does not notice and does not show the shortcomings of the homeland, but the one who plunges headlong into them, explores them, describes them in order to eradicate them.
The theme of the relationship between people and government represented by the antithesis of landowners - peasants. The latter are moral ideal Gogol. Despite the fact that these people did not receive a good upbringing and education, it is in them that one sees a glimpse of a real, living feeling. It is their unbridled energy that can transform modern Russia. They are oppressed, but active, while the landowners have complete freedom, but sit with their hands folded - this is exactly what Gogol ridicules.
The phenomenon of the Russian soul is also a topic of thought for the author. Despite all the problems raised in the book, our people are fraught with real wealth of talent and character. The Russian soul is visible even in morally inferior landowners: Korobochka is caring and hospitable, Manilov is kind-hearted and open, Sobakevich is economical and businesslike, Nozdryov is cheerful and full of energy. Even Plyushkin is transformed when he remembers friendship. This means that Russian people are unique by nature, and even in the worst of them there are virtues and dormant abilities for creation.
Family theme also interested the writer. The inferiority and coldness of the Chichikov family gave rise to vices in him, a talented young man. Plyushkin became a distrustful and malicious miser when he lost his support - his wife. The role of the family in the poem is central to the moral purification of dead souls.

The main problem of the work is the problem of the “death of the Russian soul”. The gallery of landowners in the first volume clearly demonstrates this phenomenon. Leo Tolstoy, in his novel Anna Karenina, came up with the following formula, which later began to be applied to many areas of life: “All happy families are alike, each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.” She surprisingly accurately notices the peculiarity of Gogol's characters. Although he shows us only one positive landowner (Kostanjoglo from the second volume), and we cannot verify the first part of the formula, the second part is confirmed. The souls of all the characters in the first volume are dead, but in different ways.

Ultimately, it is the totality of characters, insignificant for society individually, that becomes the cause of a social and moral crisis. It turns out that every somewhat influential person, through his activities, can change the state of things in the city - Gogol comes to this conclusion.

Bribery and embezzlement, sycophancy, ignorance are components of the problem of “death of the soul.” It is interesting that all these phenomena were called “Chichikovism”, which was used by our ancestors for a long time.

main idea

The main idea of the poem lies in the seventh chapter, in the passage where Chichikov “revives” the souls he bought and fantasizes about what all these people could be like. “Were you a master, or just a peasant, and what kind of death killed you?” - the hero asks. He thinks about the fate of those whom he previously considered goods. This is the first glimpse of his soul, the first important question. Here the hypothesis about the possibility of purifying Chichikov’s soul begins to seem plausible. If this is so, then every dead soul is capable of moral rebirth. The author believed in a happy and great future for Russia and connected it with the moral resurrection of its people.

In addition, Gogol shows the liveliness, spiritual strength, and purity of each peasant character. “Stepan is a traffic jam, that’s the hero who would be fit for the guard!”, “Popov, a yard man, should be literate.” He does not forget to pay tribute to the workers and peasants, although the subject of his coverage is Chichikov’s machinations, his interaction with the rotten bureaucracy. The point of these descriptions is not so much to show as to ridicule and condemn dead souls in order to raise the conscious reader to a new height of understanding and help him set the country on the right course.

What does it teach?

Everyone will draw their own conclusion after reading this book. Someone will object to Gogol: the problems of corruption and fraud are characteristic to one degree or another for any country; they cannot be eliminated completely. Someone will agree with him and become convinced that the soul is the only thing that any person should care about.

If it were necessary to identify a single morality, it might look like this: a person, no matter who he is, cannot live life to the fullest and be happy if you do not use energy for creative purposes, while enriching yourself illegally. What's interesting is even active work coupled with illegal methods cannot make a person happy. As an example, Chichikov is forced to hide the true motives of his behavior and fear for the disclosure of his plans.

Artistic details and language

Grotesque is Gogol's favorite technique. The famous Soviet literary critic Boris Eikhenbaum in his article “How Gogol’s Overcoat was Made” showed that his genius is manifested not so much in the content of his works, but in their form. The same can be said about “Dead Souls”. Playing with different stylistic registers - pathetic, ironic, sentimental - Gogol creates a real comedy. Grotesqueness is the discrepancy between the seriousness and importance of the chosen topic and the language used. The writer was guided by the principle “the longer we look at a funny work, the sadder it seems.” With a satirical style, he lured the reader, forcing him to return to the text and see the terrible truth under the humor.

A striking example of satire is the use speaking names. Some of them are described in the section on characteristics of landowners. The meaning of some (Disrespect-Trough, You-Won’t-Reach, Sparrow) can be debated. Historicisms (chaise, goats, irradiation) make the details difficult for the modern reader to understand.

Meaning, originality and features

“Dead Souls” occupy a central place in Gogol’s work. Despite the fact that “we all came out of Gogol’s “Overcoat”” (according to Eugene de Vogüe), the poem about Chichikov also needs careful study.

There are many interpretations of the text. The most popular is continuity with the Divine Comedy. Poet, writer and literary critic Dmitry Bykov believes that Gogol was guided by Homer's Odyssey. He draws the following parallels: Manilov - Sirens, Korobochka - Circe, Sobakevich - Polyphemus, Nozdryov - Aeolus, Plyushkin - Scylla and Charybdis, Chichikov - Odysseus.

The poem is interesting for the presence of many features available only to professional researchers and writers. For example, at the beginning of the first chapter we read: “His entry made absolutely no noise in the city and was not accompanied by anything special; only two Russian men standing at the door of the tavern opposite the hotel made some comments...” Why clarify that the men are Russian, if it is clear that the action takes place in Russia? This is a characteristic of the poem technique of the “figure of fiction”, when something (often a lot) is said, but nothing is defined. We see the same thing in the description of the “average” Chichikov.

Another example is the awakening of the hero at Korobochka as a result of a fly flying into his nose. Mukha and Chichikov actually play similar roles - they awaken from sleep. The first awakens the hero himself, while Chichikov, with his arrival, awakens the dead city and its inhabitants.

Criticism

Herzen wrote “Dead souls shook Russia.” Pushkin exclaimed: “God, how sad our Russia is!” Belinsky put the work above everything that was in Russian literature, but complained about the extremely pompous lyricism, which was not combined with the theme and message (obviously, he perceived only the content, discarding the ingenious language game). O.I. Senkovsky believed that “Dead Souls” was a humorous comparison with all the great epics.

There were many statements from critics and amateurs about the poem, they are all different, but one thing is certain: the work caused a huge resonance in society, forced us to look deeper at the world and ask serious questions. A creation can hardly be called great if it pleases and pleases everyone. Greatness comes later, in heated debate and research. Time must pass before people can appreciate the works of geniuses, which undoubtedly includes Nikolai Gogol.

Souls dead and alive in the poem by N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls"

The purpose of Chichikov's life. Father's Testament

This is what V.G. wrote. Sakhnovsky in his book “About the performance “Dead Souls”:

“...It is known that Chichikov was not too fat, not too thin; that, according to some, he even resembled Napoleon, that he had the remarkable ability to talk to everyone as an expert on what he pleasantly talked about. Chichikov's goal in communication was to make the most favorable impression, to win over and inspire confidence. It is also known that Pavel Ivanovich has a special charm, with which he overcame two disasters that would have knocked someone else down forever. But the main thing that characterizes Chichikov is his passionate attraction to acquisitions. To become, as they say, “a man of weight in society,” being a “man of rank,” without clan or tribe, who rushes about like “some kind of barge among the fierce waves,” is Chichikov’s main task. To get yourself a strong place in life, regardless of anyone’s or any interests, public or private, is what Chichikov’s end-to-end action consists of.

And everything that smacked of wealth and contentment made an impression on him that was incomprehensible to himself, Gogol writes about him. His father's instruction - “take care and save a penny” - served him well. He was not possessed by stinginess or stinginess. No, he imagined a life ahead with all sorts of prosperity: carriages, a well-appointed house, delicious dinners.

“You will do everything and ruin everything in the world with a penny,” his father bequeathed to Pavel Ivanovich. He learned this for the rest of his life. “He showed unheard-of self-sacrifice, patience and limitation of needs.” This is what Gogol wrote in his Biography of Chichikov (Chapter XI).

...Chichikov comes to poison. There is an evil that is rolling across Rus', like Chichikov in a troika. What kind of evil is this? It is revealed in everyone in their own way. Each of those with whom he does business has his own reaction to Chichikov’s poison. Chichikov leads one line, but he has a new role with each character.

...Chichikov, Nozdryov, Sobakevich and other heroes of “Dead Souls” are not characters, but types. In these types, Gogol collected and generalized many similar characters, identifying in all of them a common life and social structure...”

What are “dead souls”?

The primary meaning of the expression “dead souls” is this: these are dead peasants who are still on the audit lists. Without such a very specific meaning, the plot of the poem would be impossible. After all, Chichikov’s strange enterprise lies in the fact that he buys dead peasants who were listed as alive in the audit lists. And that this is legally feasible: it is enough just to draw up a list of peasants and formalize the purchase and sale accordingly, as if the subject of the transaction were living people. Gogol shows with his own eyes that the law of purchase and sale of living goods rules in Russia, and that this situation is natural and normal.

Consequently, the very factual basis, the very intrigue of the poem, built on the sale of revision souls, was social and accusatory, no matter how the narrative tone of the poem seemed harmless and far from exposure.

True, one can remember that Chichikov does not buy living people, that the subject of his transaction are dead peasants. However, Gogol’s irony is hidden here too. Chichikov buys up the dead in exactly the same way as if he were buying up living peasants, according to the same rules, in compliance with the same formal and legal norms. Only in this case Chichikov expects to give a significantly lower price - well, as if for a product of lower quality, stale or spoiled.

“Dead Souls” - this capacious Gogol formula begins to be filled with its deep, changing meaning. This is a conventional designation for the deceased, a phrase behind which there is no person. Then this formula comes to life - and behind it stand real peasants, whom the landowner has the power to sell or buy, specific people.

The ambiguity of meaning is hidden in Gogol’s phrase itself. If Gogol had wanted to emphasize one single meaning, he would most likely have used the expression “revision soul.” But the writer deliberately included in the title of the poem an unusual, bold phrase that was not found in everyday speech.