Analysis of the poem Dead Souls by N. Analysis of the poem by N.V.

Analysis of the poem by N.V. Gogol" Dead souls"

In the 30s of the 19th century, N.V. Gogol dreams of big things epic work, dedicated to Russia, and therefore joyfully accepts Pushkin’s “hint” - the plot about “dead souls”.

In October 1841, Gogol arrived from abroad to Russia with the first volume of the great poem. At first impression, “Dead Souls” is more of a novel. A system of characters outlined in sufficient detail is the first sign of a novel. But Leo Tolstoy said: “Take Gogol’s Dead Souls. What is this? Neither a novel nor a story. Something completely original." This is not a novel in the traditional form, nor a grand epic in the Homeric style (there are no major historical events), but still an epic, in the sense of the exceptional breadth of depiction of morals and types: “although from one side,” but “all of Rus'.”

The plot and composition were guessed by Pushkin, who, according to Gogol, “found that the plot of Dead Souls is good... because it gives complete freedom to travel all over Russia with the hero and bring out many different characters.”

The main plot motif of the poem sounds anecdotal: the purchase of dead souls. But the incredible is firmly connected with the real: most often the reader does not even think that buying dead souls is impossible. Pavel Ivanovich Chichikov personifies something new, frightening his interlocutors with its unusualness, but not at all impossible from their point of view. Chichikov’s project is not so fantastic from the point of view of landowner psychology. Serf patriarchal savagery is fertile ground for the projector’s “negotiation” of Pavel Ivanovich, the newly minted Russian bourgeois.

Gogol constantly discovers in the gallery of landowners features that unite them with the main character. It would seem that what is common between the businesslike Chichikov and the parodic-idle Manilov? “Manilovism” is an independent theme in “Dead Souls.” The image of a person “... so-so, neither this nor that, neither in the city of Bogdan, nor in the village of Selifan” is a classic image of social parasitism and spinelessness.

However, the author finds a psychological “bridge” between the inner worlds of Chichikov and Manilov. The point is not only in their equal “pleasantness” of treatment. A passion for project making is what they have in common. Empty passive daydreaming converges with daydreaming that seems to be based on a business project. Manilov is an indifferent landowner. The estate, the farm and all the peasants are placed under the control of a clerk, whose main passion is feather beds and down jackets. And Manilov knows nothing about the poor peasants, and how many of them died is also “completely unknown.”

Nozdryov is a reckless person, a player, a reveler. For Nozdryov, any purchase or sale had no moral barriers, like all his life actions. Therefore, Chichikov’s idea cannot surprise him - it is close to his adventurous nature. It is not surprising that Chichikov least of all doubts the success of business negotiations with Nozdryov.

The unity of recreating the world of characters is not destroyed by the image of Plyushkin. The greatest artistic type, Plyushkin is the personification of miserliness and spiritual decay. The reader can trace how a smart and not idle person turned into a “hole in humanity.” A truly dead soul, Plyushkin spreads death around himself: the collapse of the economy, the slow dying of hungry peasants beaten down by the “patched” master, living in buildings where there was “particular disrepair”, where the roofs “were seeping through like a sieve.” Chichikov immediately begins commercial negotiations with the owner. A common language is found quickly. The “patched” master is only concerned about one thing: how to avoid incurring losses when making a deed of sale. Reassured by Chichikov’s statement about his readiness to bear the costs of the bill of sale, Plyushkin immediately concludes that his guest is completely stupid. The two parties to the transaction are spiritual brothers, despite the stinginess of one and the imaginary generosity of the other.

Chichikov's unity with the gallery of landowner images is expressed in another feature of the narrative - in the portrait style of the central image. Mimicry is the most accurate word that can describe the external and internal appearance of Pavel Ivanovich. Looking closely at the scenes of Chichikov’s meetings with the landowners, you notice how he almost copies the external manners of his interlocutors.

This artistic technique is demonstrative, and Gogol accompanies the meeting at Korobochka with a direct commentary on how in Russia people differ

you talk to the owners of two hundred, three hundred, five hundred souls: “... even if you reach a million, there will be shades of everything.” Chichikov, while maintaining some affection, treats Korobochka without any special ceremony, and the hostess’s rude vocabulary here is in tune with the guest’s not at all artistic style.

The appearance of Sobakevich, which in the eyes of the “merchant” personifies a certain oak strength, the solidity of the landowner’s life, immediately prompts Pavel Ivanovich to start a conversation about dead souls as thoroughly as possible: “... he began somehow very distantly, touched upon the entire Russian state in general and responded with great praise about its space, said that even the most ancient Roman monarchy was not so great...” The style is guessed, and the bargaining is going well.

Chichikov's mimicry demonstrates the unity of the main character with the inner world of the people he meets - both in the inhumanity of the principles of their behavior and in the commonality of their ultimate social and moral ideals. This unity continues in the “urban” theme of “Dead Souls”. The city here is connected with the landowners' estates not only plot-wise (Chichikov came to process the purchases of dead souls), but also internally, psychologically, it is part of the same way of life, hated by Gogol and reproduced with amazing relief.

The satirical effect of the narrative begins to acquire greater severity, a new political connotation. Not just one estate, but a whole one provincial town in the grip of “holes in humanity.” Hunger, disease, drunken fights, crop failure and broken pavements, and the governor... embroiders on tulle.

The theme of fear is being developed: it has concrete, physical consequences - the commotion in the city caused by the appointment of new authorities and rumors about Chichikov's mysterious enterprise leads to the unexpected death of the prosecutor. The comic tone in her description is motivated by the author’s characterization of the complete meaninglessness of the prosecutor’s life: “What the dead man asked about, why he died, or why he lived - only God knows about that.”

The story about Captain Kopeikin directly expresses the idea of ​​the “controlling” role of the capital in creating an atmosphere of fear, a climate of lawlessness and inhumanity. Therefore, censorship prohibited the publication of these pages. For understanding social position What is important for Gogol is that the writer very actively sought to preserve this story in the text of the book, which is not directly related to the plot. Exhausted by disasters, hunger, outraged by the indifference of his superiors, the disabled person is a hero Patriotic War 1812, Captain Kopeikin becomes the chieftain of a “gang of robbers” operating in the Ryazan forests. And Gogol also adds that all this activity of the rebellious officer is worthy of a special big story: “... this is where, one might say, the thread, the plot of the novel begins.” The story of Captain Kopeikin makes even more grandiose the already colossal artistic thought in “Dead Souls,” which embraced “all of Russia.”

But there is another side to the content of the poem. The entrepreneurship of the “new” man, Chichikov, the anecdotal nature of landowner life, the dead provincial city, despite the existence of “ladies pleasant in all respects” in it, the heartlessness in the capital, the rebellion of Kopeikin - everything is illuminated by the bright thought of the great destiny of Russia. Herzen said that dead souls“living souls” are visible. This must be understood broadly. Of course, the briefly mentioned dead peasants, talented Russian workers, and the very image of the author with his sad and bitter laughter and satirical anger are the “living soul” of an amazing book.

But this is also a direct hymn to the future of Russia. “Rus', where are you going, give me the answer? Doesn't give an answer. The bell rings with a wonderful ringing; the air thunders and becomes torn into pieces by the wind; everything that is on earth flies past, and, looking askance, other peoples and states step aside and give way to it,” - with such a major chord ends the first volume of this great and sad book, a chord that justifies its genre - “poem”. Let the reader not be confused by Gogol’s words about “God’s miracle”, which the rushing Russia-troika appears to the contemplator - this is still more of an emotional formula than a concept. Religious and mystical ideas will come to Gogol a little later.

Herzen said that “Dead Souls” shocked all of Russia. Belinsky revealed the meaning of these upheavals, saying, firstly, that the incessant disputes about the book are both a literary and social issue, and secondly, that these disputes are “a battle of two eras.” Epochs are the forces of old and emerging Russia.

In 1842, Gogol began writing the second volume of the poem, but three years later he burned the manuscript. Three years later he resumed work, and a few days before his death he again burned what he had written - the finished book. By chance, only five chapters survived. This dramatic story of the book reflected internal drama writer.

Gogol tried to create an image of a positive Russia. The image of the young landowner Tentetnikov in the second volume of Dead Souls has long been rightly placed on a par with artistic types like Onegin, Rudin, and Oblomov. The reflection of a provincial thinker with a weak will and a limited view of the world is conveyed with considerable psychological authenticity.

Not inferior to the first volume in terms of visual power is such a character as Pyotr Petrovich Rooster - one of classic images Russian glutton. The colorful Colonel Koshkarev represents a special version of clericalism, a self-sufficient passion for paperwork. The ideal landowner Konstantin Fedorovich Kostanzhoglo, a supporter of patriarchy, isolated from modern civilization, is presented by the writer as a person needed by men. Gogol endows the young Russian bourgeois, tax farmer Murazov, with all the virtues, in particular, by putting into his mouth words condemning the passion for acquisition. But the paradoxical idea led to artistic defeat: the result was a pure scheme, a fictional illustration of a false idea.

The same thing happened with the image of Pavel Ivanovich Chichikov, who, by the will of the author, was supposed to take the path of moral resurrection. Gogol did not paint an ideal picture of the life of the transformed Chichikov, but, unfortunately, the artistic tendency of the second volume of Dead Souls led precisely to such a picture (the third volume was also supposed to be there, where it probably should have been presented in full).

The burning of the manuscript before his death - this dramatic fact sufficiently explains the writer’s doubts about the correctness of his artistic path in recent years.

Having revealed “all of Rus'” to the world, first of all its funny, sad, dramatic sides (but not only these, but also heroic ones), prophetically speaking about its wonderful future, Gogol created a book that was a true discovery in artistic culture, had a great influence on the development of Russian literature and art in general.

Plan

1.Introduction

2. The meaning of the name “Dead Souls”

3. Genre and essence of the poem

4. Heroes and images

5. Composition of the work

6. Conclusion

In May 1842, the printed edition “Dead Souls”, authored by Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol, was published. From the very first days of its existence, the work interested readers, being not just a poem, but a reflection of all of Russia. Although initially the author wanted to show the country only “from one side.” After writing the first volume, Gogol had a desire to further and deeper reveal the essence of the work, but, unfortunately, the second volume was partially burned, and the third was not written at all. The idea of ​​creating a poem came to Nikolai Vasilyevich after a conversation with the great Russian poet A.S. Pushkin on the topic of fraud with dead souls somewhere in Pskov. Initially, Pushkin himself wanted to take up the work, but he “gave” the idea to the young talent.

The meaning of the name “Dead Souls” is multifaceted and multi-level. As you delve further into the reading, the author’s intention becomes clear. When serfdom existed, dead peasants were “excluded from the list of the living” only once every four years when carrying out an audit. Until this moment, they were listed as alive and unscrupulous owners or other officials took advantage of this, selling or buying them for their own selfish purposes. It is these peasants who are the “dead souls” in the first chapters. Next, the author introduces us to the officials and landowners who are precisely responsible for the movement of non-existent serfs. Their greed, inhumanity and thirst for profit speak of the callousness of their soul, or its absence altogether. This is who the real “dead souls” are.

The literary genre of this unique work is also not so simple. Before he began writing Dead Souls, Gogol positioned the work as an adventurous picaresque or social novel. But in the process of work, a lot changed, and the writer realized that a love affair was not at all what he wanted to show to his contemporaries and descendants. During the publication of the first volume, the author insisted that the work be framed as a poem. Nikolai Vasilyevich’s desire was completely justified.

Firstly, it was planned to write two more volumes, in which the topic of the work would be revealed from a different angle. And secondly, multiple digressions of a lyrical nature also indicate this literary genre. Gogol himself explained this by saying that the events in the poem unfold around one main character, on whose path he encounters various difficulties and events that reflect the essence of a given time.

This poem is based on Dante Alighieri's "Divine Comedy". The path of the main character Chichikov had to go through hell, purgatory and heaven, growing new shoots of a good person in his mutilated soul. Social system and way of life folk life plays a significant role in the development of the personality of each individual hero. The situation in the country as a whole, in a particular city or estate, and a person’s attitude towards this social life are an expression of the vicious sides of the individual. It is not for nothing that the author believed that the soul dies mainly from circumstances and living conditions.

Earlier in his works, Gogol revealed the life of the Russian people only in one specific area. In “Dead Souls” the entire Russian land and the life of various segments of the population are covered - from serfs to the prosecutor. From the provinces to the capital, the problems that worried the people were closely interconnected and clearly, but rather sharply outlined by the author. Unpunished corruption, theft, cruelty and destruction were the main problems. But, despite all this, the Russian people did not stop believing in a bright future, standing out against the gray background with their sublimity and nobility of purpose. This is probably why the poem acquired such significance and popularity, which has survived to this day.

The positive characters of “Dead Souls” can be counted on one hand. This is the writer and landowner Kostanzhoglo himself. Having scientific knowledge, the landowner differed from other heroes of the poem in his prudence, responsibility, and the logic of his deeds. Having fallen precisely under his influence, Chichikov begins to take a closer look at his actions, comprehend them and take the first steps towards positive correction. The image of the writer himself, as the hero of the work, is presented by a man tragically rooting for his country.

Corruption and unrest reigning everywhere mercilessly wound him to the very heart and involuntarily make him deeply feel responsibility for the wrongdoings committed by others. The images of the remaining heroes are negative and appear in the plot as they decline morally. All officials and landowners are negative individuals. They are driven by the thirst for profit. All their actions and thoughts are justified only by absurdity and madness, and are absolutely beyond logical explanation.

The author focuses on the fact that each specific hero describes not the person himself, but the human type, in general. For example, about Korobochka the author writes “...one of those...”. It is a kind of collective image, symbolizing a box, like a vessel full of thirst for profit and accumulation of other people's goods. And about Manilov it is said that he “...belongs to so-so people...”.

In each chapter, Gogol pays special attention not only to dialogues, but also to colorful descriptions of village landscapes, the furnishings of houses and estates, as well as portrait characteristics hero. The image of Stepan Plyushkin turned out to be especially vivid and memorable. “...Oh, woman! Oh, no!...” First impressions of this landowner did not give a clear answer to what gender he was, “... the dress she was wearing was completely vague, very similar to a woman’s hood, on her head was a cap worn by village courtyard women...”. The landowner's character was quite bright, despite his stinginess, greed and sloppiness. The people around him described him as a miser, a swindler, a dog, in whom “... human feelings, which were not deep in him anyway, became shallow every minute...”. Despite the fact that Plyushkin manifests himself in the highest degree of degradation and sloppiness, and Chichikov is full of absurd greed, the author presents them to us as people capable of better changes.

Despite the high level of literary significance, the plot of the work is quite simple. This is the use of those very dead peasant souls for their own ignoble purposes. For example, the visiting official Chichikov bought them in order to pawn non-existent workers and get a considerable amount for them. The composition of the poem is divided into three parts, each of which contains a certain number of chapters. The first compositional part of “Dead Souls” shows the landowner types that existed during the work of N. Gogol. Their images include Manilov, Nozdryov, Korobochka, Sobakevich and Plyushkin.

The appearance of Chichikov in the city and his trips to the estates are also described in detail. The first link at first seems like empty movements of the protagonist from one estate to another. But in fact, this is a kind of peculiar preparation of the reader for the denouement of the poem. More energetic and interesting events follow in the plot. Making “purchases” of souls and talking about the cases carried out by Chichikov and the prosecutor. Besides main character finds time to become infatuated with the governor's daughter. At the end of this link, death awaits the prosecutor, since he cannot withstand the reproach of his conscience in front of his actions.

The last chapter of the first volume is the last link and the beginning of the writer’s next work. In the part of the second volume that has come down to us, deeper and more tragic feelings about the resale of the unfortunate souls of dead peasants are revealed. The plot can still be called unexpected and completely incomprehensible. The appearance of the main character comes out of nowhere and he also leaves for nowhere. The ambiguity of his actions points more to the theme of character than to the country's widespread misfortune.

With his poem, Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol not only exposes officials, showing us their callousness, rottenness and hypocrisy, but also draws attention to the fact that each of us can grow a seed of cruelty and indifference in our souls. “Isn’t there some part of Chichikov in me?...” With these words, the author warns the reader, forcing him to listen to his inner world and eradicate existing depravity in him.

The author in his work devoted considerable importance to the theme of love for one’s Motherland, respect for work, humanity, both in general and for each individual. The volumes of “Dead Souls” were supposed to identify the past, present and future of the country. But unfortunately, the third volume was not written. Perhaps, in this way, the writer gives a chance to create the future on his own?

History of creation. In the history of Russian literature, it is difficult to find a work, the work on which would bring its creator so much mental anguish and suffering, but at the same time so much happiness and joy, as “Dead Souls” - Gogol’s central work, the work of his whole life. Of the 23 "years devoted to creativity, 17 years - from 1835 until his death in 1852 - Gogol worked on his poem. Most of this time he lived abroad, mainly in Italy. But of the entire huge and grandiose trilogy about Life of Russia, only the first volume was published (1842), and the second was burned before his death; the writer never began work on the third volume.

The work on this book was not easy - many times Gogol changed the plan, rewrote parts that had already been corrected into pieces, achieving complete execution of the plan and artistic perfection. The discerning artist worked on the first volume alone for 6 years. In the fall of 1841, he brought the first volume ready for printing from Italy to Moscow, but here an unexpected blow awaited him: censorship opposed the publication of a work entitled “Dead Souls.” I had to send the manuscript to St. Petersburg, where his influential friends stood up for the writer, but even here everything was not settled right away. Finally, after long explanations regarding the misunderstanding with the title and making corrections, in particular regarding “The Tale of Captain Kopeikin,” the first volume of the poem was published in May 1842. Making concessions, the author changed the title: the book was published under the title “The Adventures of Chichikov, or Dead Souls.” Readers and critics greeted it favorably, but much in this unusual work immediately caused controversy, which developed into heated discussions.

In an effort to explain to the reader his new grandiose plan, Gogol actively begins to work on the continuation of the work, but it is very difficult, with long interruptions. During the creation of the poem, Gogol experienced several severe spiritual and physical crises. In 1840, he suffered from a dangerous illness, he was already ready to die, but unexpectedly healing came, which Gogol, a deeply religious man, perceived as a gift sent to him from above in the name of fulfilling his lofty plan. It was then that his philosophy and moral idea the second and third volumes of “Dead Souls” with the plot of human self-improvement and movement towards achieving a spiritual ideal. This can be felt already in the first volume, but such a plan should have been fully realized in the entire trilogy. Starting work on the second volume in 1842, Gogol felt that the task he had set was very difficult: the utopia of some imaginary new Russia was in no way consistent with reality. So, in 1845, another crisis arose, as a result of which Gogol burned the already written second volume. He feels that he needs intense internal work on himself - Gogol reads and studies spiritual literature, the Holy Scriptures, and enters into correspondence with like-minded friends. The result is the artistic and journalistic book “Selected Passages from Correspondence with Friends,” published in 1847 and causing the most fierce criticism. In this book, Gogol expressed a thought similar to that which underlies the concept of the “Dead Souls” trilogy: the path to the creation of a new Russia does not lie through the destruction of the state system or various political transformations, but through the moral self-improvement of each person. This idea, expressed in journalistic form, was not accepted by the writer’s contemporaries. Then he decided to continue its development, but in the form work of art, and with this is connected his return to the interrupted work on the second volume of Dead Souls, which is being completed in Moscow. By 1852, the second volume was actually written in its entirety. But again the writer is overcome by doubts, he begins editing, and within a few months the white paper turns into a draft. And physical and nervous strength was already at its limit. On the night of February 11-12, 1852, Gogol burns the white manuscript, and on February 21 (March 4) he dies.

Direction and genre. Literary criticism In the 19th century, starting with Belinsky, Gogol began to be called the founder of a new period in the development of Russian realistic literature. If Pushkin was characterized by harmony and objectivity of the artistic world, then in Gogol’s work this is replaced by critical pathos, which determines the artist’s desire to reflect the real contradictions of reality, to penetrate into the darkest sides of life and human soul. That is why, in the second half of the 19th century, supporters of the democratic camp sought to see in Gogol, first of all, a satirical writer, who marked the arrival in literature of new themes, problems, “ideas and methods of their artistic embodiment, which were first picked up by the writers of the “natural school”, united around Belinsky , and then developed in the realistic literature of the “Gogol period” - this is how, in contrast to Pushkin’s, the literature of critical realism of the second half of the 19th century began to be called.

Now many scientists dispute this point of view and say that, along with critical pathos, Gogol's realism is distinguished by a striving for the ideal, which is genetically connected with the romantic worldview. The position of Gogol, who recognized himself as a missionary artist, called upon not only to show acute social problems and the depth of the moral decline of contemporary society and man, but also to point the way to spiritual revival and transformation of all aspects of life, was especially clearly manifested in the process of working on “Dead Souls” "

All this determined the originality of the genre specificity of the work. It is obvious that Gogol's poem is not traditional, it is a new artistic construction that has no analogues in world literature. It is not without reason that the debate about the genre of this work, which began immediately after the release of Dead Souls, has not subsided to this day. The writer himself did not immediately determine the genre of his work: it was the result of a complex creative process, a change in ideological concept. At first, he thought of the work he was creating as a novel. In a letter to Pushkin dated October 7, 1835, Gogol notes: “In this novel I would like to show at least one side of all of Rus'... The plot stretched out over a long novel and... It seems like it will be very funny." But already in a letter to Zhukovsky dated November 12, 1836, a new name appears - a poem.

This change corresponded to a new plan: “All of Rus' will appear in it.” The general features of the work are gradually becoming clearer, which, according to Gogol’s plan, should become similar to the ancient epic - the epic poems of Homer. He imagines the new work as a Russian “Odyssey”, only at the center of it was not the cunning Homeric traveler, but the “scoundrel-acquirer,” as Gogol called the central - “through” - hero of his poem, Chichikov.

At the same time, an analogy is formed with Dante’s poem “The Divine Comedy”, which is associated not only with the features of the general three-part structure, but also with the aspiration to the ideal - spiritual improvement. It was the ideal beginning in such a work that should have become decisive. But as a result, of this entire grandiose plan, only the first part was completed, to which, first of all, the words about depicting Rus' only “from one side” were related. Nevertheless, it was wrong would consider that in the first volume there is only satire. It is not for nothing that the writer retained the genre definition of a poem for it. Because here, in addition to the depiction of the real state of life, which causes the writer’s protest, there is an ideal beginning, revealed primarily in the lyrical part of the poem - lyrical digressions..

Thus, the originality of the genre, this lyric-epic work, lies in the combination of the epic and lyrical (in lyrical digressions) beginnings, the features of a travel novel and a review novel (through-out hero). In addition, features of the genre are revealed here, which Gogol himself singled out in his work: “Training Book of Literature” and called it “a lesser kind of epic.” Unlike the novel, such works tell a story not about individual heroes, but about the people or their people. parts, which is quite applicable to the poem “Dead Souls”.

Composition and plot. The composition and plot of the work also changed as the concept developed and deepened. According to Gogol himself, the plot of “Dead Souls” was given to him by Pushkin. But what was this “gifted” plot? According to researchers, it corresponded to the external intrigue - Chichikov’s purchase of Dead Souls. "Dead soul" is a phrase from 19th century bureaucratic jargon for a dead peasant. Around the scam with the serfs, who, despite the fact of death, continue to be listed as alive in the revision fairy tale and whom Chichikov wants to pledge at interest to the Guardian Council, a “mirage intrigue” revolves, the first storyline of the work.

But another story is more important - an internal one, showing the transformation of Russia and the revival of the people living in it. It did not appear immediately, but as a result of a change in the general concept of the poem. It was when the concept of “Dead Souls” began to be associated with the grandiose poem “The Divine Comedy” by the great Italian writer of the early Renaissance, Dante Alighieri, that the entire artistic structure of “Dead Souls” was redefined. Dante's work consists of three parts (“Hell”, “Purgatory”, “Paradise”), creating a kind of poetic encyclopedia of life in medieval Italy. Focusing on it, Gogol dreams of creating a work in which the true Russian path would be found and Russia in the present and its movement towards the future would be shown.

In accordance with this new plan, it is being built general composition the poem "Dead Souls", which was supposed to consist of three volumes, like Dante's "Divine Comedy". The first volume, which the author called “the porch to the house,” is a kind of “Hell” of Russian reality. It was he who turned out to be the only one of the writer’s vast plans that was fully realized. In the 2nd volume, similar to “Purgatory,” new positive heroes were supposed to appear and, using the example of Chichikov, it was supposed to show the path of purification and resurrection of the human soul. Finally, in the 3rd volume - “Paradise” - a beautiful, ideal world and truly spiritualized heroes were to appear. In this plan, Chichikov was assigned a special compositional function: it was he who would have to go through the path of resurrection of the soul, and therefore could become a connecting hero who connects all the parts of the grandiose picture of life presented in the three volumes of the poem. But even in its 1st volume, this function of the hero is preserved: the story about Chichikov’s journey in search of sellers from whom he acquires “dead souls” helps the author to combine different storylines, easily introduce new faces, events, pictures that make up the broadest a panorama of life in Russia in the 30s of the 19th century.

The composition of the first volume of “Dead Souls,” similar to “Hell,” is organized in such a way as to show as fully as possible the negative aspects of life in all components of modern Russia to the author. The first chapter is a general exposition, followed by five portrait chapters (chapters 2-6), in which landowner Russia is presented." Chapters 7-10 give a collective image of bureaucracy, and the last, eleventh chapter is dedicated to Chichikov.

These are externally closed, but internally interconnected links. Outwardly, they are united by the plot of purchasing “dead souls.” Chapter 1 tells about Chichikov’s arrival in the provincial town, then a series of his meetings with landowners are shown sequentially, chapter 7 deals with the formalization of the purchase, and chapters 8-9 talk about the rumors associated with it, chapter 11 Chapter 1, along with Chichikov’s biography, reports on his departure from the city. Internal unity is created by the author’s reflections on contemporary Russia. This internal plot, the most important from an ideological point of view, allows us to organically fit into the composition of the 1st volume of the poem a large number of extra-plot elements (lyrical digressions, inserted episodes), as well as include an insert that is completely unmotivated from the point of view of the plot about the purchase of dead souls. “Tale”. about captain Kopeikin."

Topics and problems. In accordance with the main idea of ​​the work - to show the path to achieving a spiritual ideal, on the basis of which the writer imagines the possibility of transforming both the state system of Russia, its social structure, and all social strata and each individual person - the main themes and problems posed in the poem are determined. Dead souls." Being an opponent of any political and social upheavals, especially revolutionary ones, the Christian writer believes that the negative phenomena that characterize the state of contemporary Russia can be overcome through moral self-improvement not only of the Russian person himself, but also of the entire structure of society and the state. Moreover, such changes, from Gogol’s point of view, should not be external, but internal, that is, we are talking about the fact that all state and social structures, and especially their leaders, in their activities should be guided by moral laws and the postulates of Christian ethics. Thus, the eternal Russian problem - bad roads - can be overcome, according to Gogol, not by changing bosses or tightening laws and control over their implementation. To do this, it is necessary that each of the participants in this matter, first of all the leader, remember that he is responsible not to a higher official, but to God. Gogol called on every Russian person in his place, in his position, to do things as the highest - Heavenly - law commands.

That is why the themes and problems of Gogol’s poem turned out to be so broad and comprehensive. In its first volume, the emphasis is placed on all those negative phenomena in the life of the country that need to be corrected. But the main evil for the writer lies not in social problems as such, but in the reason for which they arise: the spiritual impoverishment of contemporary man. That is why the problem of the death of the soul becomes central in the 1st volume of the poem. All other themes and problems of the work are grouped around it. “Be not dead, but living souls!” - the writer calls, convincingly demonstrating the abyss into which one who has lost his living soul falls. But what is meant by this strange oxymoron - “dead soul”, which gives the title to the whole work? Of course, not only a purely bureaucratic term used in Russia in the 19th century. Often " dead soul“They call a person mired in worries about vanity. The gallery of landowners and officials shown in the 1st volume of the poem reveals such “dead souls” to the reader, since they are all characterized by lack of spirituality, selfish interests, empty extravagance or soul-consuming stinginess. From this point of view, the “dead souls” shown in the 1st volume can only be opposed by the “living soul” of the people, presented in the author’s lyrical digressions. But, of course, the oxymoron “dead soul” is interpreted by the Christian writer in a religious and philosophical sense. The very word “soul” indicates the immortality of the individual in its Christian understanding. From this point of view, the symbolism of the definition “dead souls” contains the opposition of the dead (inert, frozen, spiritless) principle and the living (spiritualized, high, light). The uniqueness of Gogol's position lies in the fact that he not only contrasts these two principles, but points out the possibility of awakening the living in the dead. So the poem includes the theme of the resurrection of the soul, the theme of the path to its revival. It is known that Gogol intended to show the path of revival of two heroes from the 1st volume - Chichikov and Plyushkin. The author dreams that the “dead souls” of Russian reality will be reborn, turning into truly “living” souls.

But in the contemporary world, the death of the soul affected literally everyone and was reflected in the most diverse aspects of life. In the poem “Dead Souls,” the writer continues and develops the general theme that runs through all of his work: the belittlement and disintegration of man in the illusory and absurd world of Russian reality. But now it is enriched with an idea of ​​what the true, high spirit of Russian life is, what it can and should be. This idea permeates the main theme of the poem: the writer’s reflection on Russia and its people. The present of Russia presents a terrifyingly powerful picture of decay and decay, which has affected all layers of society: landowners, officials, even the people. Gogol demonstrates in an extremely concentrated form “the properties of our Russian breed.” Among them, he especially highlights the vices inherent in the Russian person. Thus, Plyushkin’s frugality turns into Manilov’s stinginess, daydreaming and cordiality - into an excuse for laziness and sweetness. Nozdrev's daring and energy are wonderful qualities, but here they are excessive and aimless, and therefore become a parody of Russian heroism. At the same time, by drawing extremely generalized types of Russian landowners, Gogol reveals the theme of landowner Rus', which correlates with the problems of relationships between landowners and peasants, the profitability of landowner farming, and the possibility of its improvement. At the same time, the writer condemns not serfdom and not the landowners as a class, but exactly how they use their power over the peasants, the wealth of their lands, and for the sake of which they engage in farming in general. And here the main theme remains the theme of impoverishment, which is connected not so much with economic or social problems, how much with the process of death of the soul.

Gogol does not hide the spiritual misery of a forced person, humiliated, downtrodden and submissive. Such are Chichikov's coachman Selifan and footman Petrushka, the girl Pelageya, who does not know where is right and where is left, men thoughtfully discussing whether the wheel of Chichikov's chaise will reach Moscow or Kazan, Uncle Mityai and Uncle Minyai fussing around senselessly. It is not for nothing that the “living soul” of a people is visible only in those who have already died, and in this the writer sees a terrible paradox of his contemporary reality. The writer shows how wonderful qualities folk character turn into their opposite. Russian people love to philosophize, but often this results in idle talk. His leisureliness is similar to laziness, gullibility and naivety turn into stupidity, and empty vanity arises from efficiency. “Our land is perishing... from ourselves,” the writer addresses everyone.

Continuing what was started in “The Inspector General” the theme of denouncing the bureaucratic system a state mired in corruption and bribery, Gogol paints a kind of review of “dead souls” and bureaucratic Russia, which is characterized by idleness and emptiness of existence. The writer talks about the lack of true culture and morality in his contemporary society. Balls and gossip are the only things that fill people's lives here. All conversations revolve around trifles; these people are unaware of spiritual needs. Performance

about beauty comes down to a discussion of the colors of the material and fashionable styles (“motley is not motley”), and a person is assessed, in addition to his property and class status, by the way he blows his nose and ties his tie.

That is why the immoral and dishonest rogue Chichikov so easily finds his way into this society. Along with this hero, the poem includes another important theme: Russia is embarking on the path of capitalist development and a new “hero of the time” appears in life, whom Gogol was the first to show and appreciate - “the scoundrel - the acquirer.” For such a person there are no moral barriers with regard to his main goal - his own benefit. At the same time, the writer sees that in comparison with the inert, deadened environment of landowners and officials, this hero looks much more energetic, capable of quick and decisive action, and unlike many of those with whom he encounters, Chichikov is endowed with common sense. But these good qualities cannot bring anything positive to Russian life if the soul of their bearer remains dead, like all the other characters in the poem. Practicality and determination in Chichikov turn into trickery. It contains the richest potential, but without a high goal, without a moral foundation, they cannot be realized, and therefore Chichikov’s soul is destroyed.

Why did this situation arise? Answering this question, Gogol returns to his constant theme: denouncing the “vulgarity of a vulgar person.” “My heroes are not villains at all,” the writer claims, “but they are “all vulgar without exception.” Vulgarity, which turns into death of the soul, moral savagery, is the main danger for a person. It is not for nothing that Gogol attached such great importance to the insert “The Tale of Captain Kopeikin,” which shows the cruelty and inhumanity of the officials of the “highest commission” itself. “The Tale” is dedicated to the theme of the heroic year 1812 and creates a deep contrast to the soulless and petty world of officials. In this seemingly expanded episode, it is shown that the fate of the captain, who fought for his homeland, was crippled and deprived of the opportunity to feed himself, does not concern anyone. The highest officials in St. Petersburg are indifferent to him, which means that deadness has penetrated everywhere - from the society of district and provincial cities to the top of the state pyramid.

But in the 1st volume of the poem there is also something that opposes this terrible, soulless, vulgar life. This is the ideal beginning that must be in a work called a poem. “The innumerable wealth of the Russian spirit”, “a husband gifted with divine virtues”, “a wonderful Russian maiden... with all the wondrous beauty of a woman’s soul” - all this is just being conceived and is expected to be embodied in subsequent volumes. But even in the first volume, the presence of the ideal is felt - through the author’s voice, sounding in lyrical digressions, thanks to which the poem includes a completely different range of topics and problems. The peculiarity of their production is that only the author can lead a conversation with the reader about literature, culture, art, and rise to the heights philosophical thought. After all, none of his “vulgar” heroes are interested in these topics; everything lofty and spiritual cannot touch them. Only sometimes does there seem to be a merging of the voices of the author and his hero Chichikov, who will have to be reborn, and therefore will have to address all these issues. But in the 1st volume of the poem this is only a kind of promise of the hero’s future development, a kind of “author’s hint” to him.

Along with the author's voice, the poem includes the most important topics, which can be combined into several blocks. The first of them concerns issues related to literature: about writing and different types of literary artists, the tasks of the writer and his responsibilities; O literary heroes and ways of depicting them, among which the most important place is given to satire; about the possibility of a new positive hero. The second block covers questions of a philosophical nature - about life and death, youth and old age as different periods of the development of the soul; about the purpose and meaning of life, the purpose of man. The third block concerns the problem of the historical destinies of Russia and its people: it is connected with the theme of the path along which the country is moving, its future, which is conceived ambiguously; with the theme of the people as they can and should be; with the theme of the heroism of the Russian man and his limitless possibilities.

These large ideological and thematic layers of the work manifest themselves both in individual lyrical digressions and in cross-cutting motifs running through the entire work. The peculiarity of the poem also lies in the fact that, following Pushkin’s traditions, Gogol creates the image of the author in it. This is not just a conventional figure holding together individual elements, but a holistic personality, with his own openly expressed worldview. The author directly evaluates everything that he tells. At the same time, in lyrical digressions the author reveals himself in all the diversity of his personality. At the beginning of the sixth chapter there is a sad and elegiac reflection on passing youth and maturity, on the “loss of living movement” and impending old age. At the end of this digression, Gogol directly addresses the reader: “Take with you on the journey, emerging from soft youthful years into stern, embittering courage, take with you all human movements, do not leave them on the road, you will not pick them up later! The old age coming ahead is terrible, terrible, and nothing gives back and back! This is how the theme of spiritual and moral improvement of man sounds again, but addressed not only to his contemporaries, but also to himself.

Related to this are the author’s thoughts about the artist’s task in the modern world. The lyrical digression at the beginning of Chapter VII talks about two types of writers. The author is fighting for the establishment of realistic art and a demanding, sober view of life, not afraid to highlight all the “mud of little things” in which modern man is mired, even if this dooms the writer to not be accepted by his readers and causes their hostility. He speaks about the fate of such an “unrecognized writer”: “His field is harsh, and he will bitterly feel his loneliness.” A different fate awaits the writer who avoids pressing problems. Success and glory, honor among his compatriots await him. Comparing the fates of these two writers, the author speaks with bitterness about the moral and aesthetic deafness of the “modern court,” which does not recognize that “high, enthusiastic laughter is worthy of standing next to the high lyrical movement.” Subsequently, this lyrical digression became the subject of fierce debate in the literary controversy that unfolded in the 1840-1850s.

But Gogol himself is ready not only to plunge into the “mud of little things” and to strike with the satirist’s pen the “vulgarity of a vulgar person.” To him, a writer-prophet, something can be revealed that gives hope and calls to the future. And he wants to present this ideal to his readers, urging them to strive for it. The role of the positive ideological pole in the poem is played by one of the leading motives - the motive of Russian heroism. It runs through the entire work, appearing almost unnoticed in Chapter 1; The mention of the “present time”, “when heroes are already beginning to appear in Rus'”, develops gradually in lyrical digressions and in the last, 11th chapter the final chord sounds - “Shouldn’t there be a hero here.”

These images of Russian heroes are not reality, but rather Gogol’s embodied faith in the Russian people. All of them are among the dead and fugitive “souls,” and although they live or lived in the same world as the rest of the heroes of the poem, they do not belong to the reality in which the action takes place. Such folk images do not exist on their own, but are only outlined in Chichikov’s reflections on the list of peasants purchased from Sobakevich. But the entire style and character of this fragment of text indicates that we are looking at the thoughts of the author himself, rather than his hero. He continues here the theme of the heroism of the Russian people, their potential. Among those he writes about are talented craftsmen - Stepan Probka, a carpenter, “a hero who would be fit for the guard”; brickmaker Milushkin, shoemaker Maxim Telyatnikov. The author speaks with admiration about the barge haulers, replacing the “revelry of peaceful life” with “labor and sweat”; about the reckless prowess of people like Abram Fyrov, a runaway peasant who, despite the danger, “walks noisily and cheerfully on the grain pier.” But in real life, who have deviated so greatly from the ideal, death awaits them all. And only the living language of the people testifies that their soul has not died, it can and must be reborn. Reflecting on a truly popular language, Gogol notes in a lyrical digression associated with the characterization of the nickname given to Plyushkin by a peasant: “There is no word that would be so sweeping, lively, would burst out from under the very heart, would boil and vibrate so aptly spoken Russian word."

The heroic people match the Russian landscapes of that land, “that doesn’t like to joke, but has spread out smoothly across half the world, and go count the miles* until it hits you in the face.” In the final, 11th chapter, a lyrical and philosophical reflection on Russia and the vocation of the writer, whose “head was overshadowed by a menacing cloud, heavy with future rains,” is replaced by the motif of the road, one of the central ones in the poem. It is associated with main theme- the path intended for Russia and the people. In Gogol's system, movement, path, road are always interconnected concepts: this is evidence of life, development, opposing inertia and death. It is no coincidence that all the biographies of peasants, who personify the best that is in the people, are united by this very motif. “Tea, you left all the provinces with an ax in your belt... Where are your fast legs carrying you now?.. It’s clear from your nickname that they are good runners.” It should be noted that the ability to move is also characteristic of Chichikov, a hero who, according to the author’s plan, was to be purified and transformed into a positive character.

That is why two of the most important themes of the author’s reflections - the theme of Russia and the theme of the road - merge in a lyrical digression that ends the first volume of the poem. “Rus'-troika,” “all inspired by God,” appears in it as the vision of the author, who seeks to understand the meaning of its movement; “Rus, where are you going? give me the answer. Doesn't give an answer." But in the high lyrical pathos that permeates these final lines, one can hear the writer’s faith that the answer will be found and the soul of the people will appear alive and beautiful.

Main characters. The poem “Dead Souls,” according to Gogol’s plan, was supposed to represent “all of Rus',” even if only “from one side,” in the first part, so talk about the presence in this work of one or more central characters it would be wrong. Chichikov could become such a hero, but within the scope of the entire three-part plan. In the 1st volume of the poem, he stands among other characters who characterize different types of entire social groups contemporary writer Russia, although he also has the additional function of a connecting hero. That is why we should consider not so much individual characters as the entire group to which they belong: landowners, officials, the hero-acquirer. All of them are given in a satirical light, since their souls have become dead. Such are the representatives of the people, who are shown as a component real Russia, and there is a living soul only in those representatives people's Rus', which is embodied as the author's ideal.

Landlord Russia shown in several of its most characteristic types: these are Manilov, Korobochka, Nozdrev, Sobakevich and Plyushkin. It is them that Chichikov visits in order to buy dead souls. We get to know each of the landowners only during the time (usually no more than one day) that Chichikov spends with him. But Gogol chooses such a method of depiction, based on a combination of typical features with individual characteristics, which allows us to get an idea not only of one of the characters, but also of the whole layer of Russian landowners embodied in this hero.

A separate chapter is devoted to each of the landowners, and together they represent the face of landowner Russia. The sequence of appearance of these images is not accidental: from landowner to landowner, the impoverishment of the human soul, absorbed in the thirst for profit or senseless waste, becomes deeper and deeper, which is explained as the uncontrolled possession of the “souls” of others, wealth , the earth, and the aimlessness of existence, which has lost its highest spiritual goal. According to Gogol, heroes follow us, “one more vulgar than the other.” These characters are presented as if in a double light - as they seem to themselves, and as they really are. Such a contrast causes a comic effect and at the same time a bitter smile from the reader.

The characters of the landowners are in some ways opposite, but also in some ways subtly similar to each other. With such contrast and comparison, Gogol achieves additional depth of the narrative. In order for the reader to better see the similarities and differences in different types of landowners, the writer uses a special technique. The image of all landowners is based on the same microplot. His “spring” is the actions of Chichikov, the buyer of “dead souls”. Indispensable participants in each of five such microplots are two characters: Chichikov and the landowner to whom he comes. In each of the five chapters devoted to them, the author constructs the story as a sequential change of episodes: entry into the estate, meeting, refreshment, Chichikov’s offer to sell him “dead souls,” departure. These are not ordinary plot episodes: it is not the events themselves that are of interest to the author, but the opportunity to show the objective world surrounding the landowners, in which the personality of each of them is most fully reflected; not only to provide information about the content of the conversation between Chichikov and the landowner, but to show in the manner of communication of each of the characters what carries both typical and individual features.

The scene of the purchase and sale of “dead souls” in the chapters about each of the landowners occupies a central place. Before this, the reader, together with Chichikov, can already form a certain idea of ​​the landowner with whom the swindler is talking. It is on the basis of this impression that Chichikov builds a conversation about “dead souls.” Therefore, his success depends entirely on how faithfully and completely he, and therefore the readers, managed to understand this human type with its individual characteristics.

The first of them appears before us is Manilov, to whom the second chapter is dedicated. He seems to himself to be a bearer of high culture, and in the army he was considered an educated officer. But Gogol shows that this is only a claim to the role of an enlightened, intelligent landowner who, living in the village, brings high culture to those around him. In fact, its main feature is idle daydreaming, giving rise to absurd projects and spiritual emptiness. This is a boring and worthless, “gray” person: “neither this nor that; neither in the city of Bogdan, nor in the village of Selifan,” as Gogol says about him. True, Manilov does not seem angry or cruel in his treatment of people. On the contrary, he speaks well of all his acquaintances, welcomes guests cordially, and is affectionate with his wife and children. But all this seems somehow unreal - “a game for the viewer.” Even his pleasant appearance evokes the feeling that there was “too much sugar in this man.” There is no conscious deception in such deliberateness - Manilov is too stupid for this, sometimes he even lacks words. He simply lives in an illusory world, and the process of fantasy itself gives Manilov real pleasure. Hence his love for a beautiful phrase and, in general, for any kind of posing - exactly as shown in the scene of buying and selling dead souls. “Wouldn’t this negotiation be inconsistent with civil regulations and further developments in Russia?” - he asks, showing ostentatious interest in state affairs, while completely not understanding the essence of Chichikov’s proposal. But the most important thing is that, apart from empty dreams, Manilov simply cannot do anything - after all, one cannot really consider that knocking out a pipe and lining up piles of ashes in “beautiful rows” is a worthy occupation for an enlightened landowner. He is a sentimental dreamer, completely incapable of action. It is not for nothing that his surname has become a common noun, expressing the corresponding concept - “.Manilovism”. Idleness and idleness entered the flesh and blood of this man and became an integral part of his nature. Sentimentally - idyllic ideas about the world, dreams in which he is immersed most of his time, lead to the fact that his economy goes “somehow by itself”, without much participation on his part, and gradually falls apart.

But it is not only complete mismanagement that makes this type of landowner unacceptable, from the writer’s point of view. The main argument is that Manilov has completely lost his spiritual guidelines. Only complete insensitivity can explain the fact that he, wanting to please his friend, decided to give Chichikov is dead souls. And the blasphemous phrase that he utters at the same time: “dead souls are in some way complete rubbish” - for Gogol, a deeply religious man, is evidence that the soul of Manilov himself is dead.

The next type of landowner is represented by Korobochka. If in the image of Manilov Gogol exposed the myth of the enlightened master, then in the image of Korobochka the writer dispelled the idea of ​​a thrifty and businesslike landowner who wisely manages the farm, takes care of the peasants, and preserves the family hearth. The patriarchal nature of this landowner is not at all the careful preservation of traditions about which Pushkin wrote: “They kept in their peaceful life / The habits of dear old times.” The box seems simply stuck in the past; time seemed to have stopped for her and began to move in a vicious circle of petty household worries that consumed and killed her soul. Indeed, unlike Manilov, she is always busy with housework. This is evidenced by the sown vegetable gardens, the poultry house filled with “every domestic creature,” and the “properly maintained” peasant huts. Her village is well-kept, and the peasants living in it do not suffer from poverty. Everything speaks of the housewife’s neatness and her ability to manage the estate. But this is not a manifestation of a living economic mind. The box simply follows a kind of “program of action”, that is, it grows, sells and buys, and only in this plane can it think. There can be no talk of any spiritual needs here. Korobochka's house with old small mirrors, hissing clocks and pictures, behind which something is sure to be hidden, lush feather beds and hearty food tells us about the patriarchal way of life of the housewife. But this simplicity borders on ignorance, a reluctance to know anything beyond the scope of her concerns. In everything, she thoughtlessly follows the usual patterns: a visitor means "merchant"; a thing "from Moscow" means " good job"etc. Korobochka's thinking is limited, as is the vicious circle of her life - even to the city located not far from the estate, she only went out a couple of times. The way Korobochka communicates with Chichikov betrays her stupidity, which is not in the least hindered by her practical acumen and desire not to miss out on benefits. This is most clearly manifested in the scene of the purchase and sale of dead souls. The box seems extremely stupid, no. capable of "capturing the essence of what is "profitable." Chichikov's proposals. She understands him literally: “Do you want to dig them out of the ground?” - asks the landowner. Korobochka’s fear of selling dead souls is absurd and funny, since she is not so much afraid of the object of trade, but more concerned about not selling it cheap, and maybe even Chichikov can’t stand the dead souls for some reason. Korobochka’s impenetrable stupidity. His opinion about her surprisingly coincides with the author’s: this “club-headed” landowner shows readers that people like her are not capable of any movement - neither external nor internal. them is dead and can no longer be reborn.

In contrast to Korobochka, Nozdryov is all in motion. He has an irrepressible temperament, is active, decisive: he buys, exchanges, sells, cheats at cards, loses and always ends up in some bad stories, which is why he receives the ironic definition of “historical man.” However, his activities turn against those around him and are always aimless. He is not petty, like Korobochka, but he is frivolous like Manilov, and, like Khlestakov, he lies on every occasion and boasts beyond measure. In addition, he does not complete anything to the end: unfinished repairs in the house (when the master himself and guests come home, men paint the walls in the dining room of his house), empty stalls, an old, faulty barrel organ, absolutely useless, and a chaise lost at cards - that’s the consequences of this. It is not surprising that his estate and farm, which he is not at all concerned about, are falling apart, the peasants are in poverty, only Nozdryov’s dogs live comfortably and freely. They replace his family: after all, Nozdryov’s wife has died, and the two children whom the nanny is looking after are not of interest to him at all. In fact, he is not bound by any obligations - neither moral nor material. But there is no power of money or property over him. He is ready to squander anything: a horse, a cart, money received from selling goods at a fair. That is why it is Nozdryov who is able to rebuff Chichikov, who is preoccupied with the pursuit of money: he did not sell the dead souls, he kicked them out of his house, and then also contributed to the expulsion from the city.

And yet this does not mean that in the image of Nozdryov Gogol shows a positive hero. True, it is he who the writer gives the opportunity, albeit inadvertently, to reveal Chichikov’s secret: “Now it is clear that he is a two-faced man.” There is also some kind of duality in Nozdryov himself. In his portrait there is something that is reminiscent of a folklore good fellow: “He was of medium height, a very well-built fellow, with full rosy cheeks, teeth white as snow and jet-black sideburns. It was fresh, like blood and milk; his health seemed to be dripping from his face.” Of course, there is obvious irony in this description. It is not for nothing that the author, further talking about the fights in which Nozdryov constantly gets involved, notes that “his full cheeks were so well created and contained so much vegetative force that his sideburns soon grew back” when in the next mess they were pulled out for him. There is something of an animal in this hero (remember, he was among dogs “just like a father among a family”), but the definition of “historical person” was not given to him in vain. The author's description of this landowner contains not only irony and mockery, but also another motive - the motive of unrealized possibilities contained in this nature. “You can always see something open, direct, and daring in their faces,” Gogol writes about the type of people like Nozdryov. And at the end of the chapter, describing the ugly end of a game of checkers, when Nozdryov is ready to beat up a guest who came to him, suddenly a completely unexpected comparison arises: “Beat him! - he shouted in the same voice as during a great attack he shouts to his platoon: “Guys, go ahead! - some desperate lieutenant, whose eccentric courage has already acquired such fame that a special order is given to hold his hands during hot affairs. But the lieutenant already felt the swearing fervor, everything went around in his head; Suvorov rushes in front of him, he climbs for a great cause.” Maybe the trouble with a character like Nozdryov’s is that he was born at the wrong time? If he had had a chance to participate in the War of 1812, perhaps he would have been no worse than Denis Davydov. But, as the writer believes, in his time such a human type shredded, degenerated, turned into a parody, and his soul became dead. All his strength and courage were only enough to almost beat Chichikov and do a fair amount of mischief to him.

Svbakevich seems to be the complete opposite of Nozdryov; he, like Korobochka, zealous owner. But this is a special type of landowner-kulak, who, unlike Korobochka, may well fit into the new conditions of the coming century of capitalist economy. If the busy landowner is petty and stupid, then Sobakevich, on the contrary, is a large, ponderous, clumsy person, similar to a “medium-sized bear” (he even has the name Mikhail Semenovich), but possessing a fast, tenacious, calculating mind. Everything around is a match for this bear-man: solidly and well made, but clumsily and roughly (“in the corner of the living room there was a pot-bellied walnut bureau on the most absurd four legs: a perfect bear”), His village is “big, rich, ... peasant houses they are strong, and they apparently do not live poorly. The master's house also testifies to the owner's concern, first of all, for convenience and reliability - so, contrary to the architect's plan, it came out unsightly and tasteless. But unlike the pretentious, but narrow-minded Manilov, Sobakevich does not care about the appearance, the main thing is that everything is practical and durable. And he himself looks in such a way that it becomes clear: he is “one of those people, second nature didn’t think twice about finishing..., he took an ax once, his nose came out, he took it another time, his lips came out, he picked out his eyes with a big drill...” It seems that he is only interested in filling his stomach more tightly. But behind this appearance lies a smart, evil and dangerous predator. No wonder Sobakevich recalls how his father could kill a bear. He himself turned out to be able to “overwhelm” another powerful and terrible predator - Chichikov. The buying and selling scene in this chapter is fundamentally different from all similar scenes with other landowners: here it is not Chichikov, but Sobakevich who leads the party. He, unlike the others, immediately understands the essence of the fraudulent transaction, which does not confuse him at all, and begins to conduct a real bargain. Chichikov understands that this is a serious, dangerous enemy, who should be feared, and therefore accepts the rules of the game, Sobakevich, like Chichikov, is not embarrassed by the unusualness and immorality of the transaction: there is a seller, there is a buyer, there is a product. Chichikov, trying to bring down the price, reminds that “the whole thing is just wow... who needs it?” To which Sobakevich reasonably remarks: “Yes, you’re buying, so you need it.” Some researchers of Gogol’s work believe that in this episode it’s as if two demons came together and were arguing about the price of the human soul: eight hryvnia, as Chichikov suggests, or “one hundred rubles apiece,” as Sobakevich wrangles at first. We agreed on a price of two and a half. The author concludes with a bitter smile: “This is how it happened.”
Maybe it’s true that those souls that pass in succession before the reader’s eyes are no longer standing? But it is not without reason that it is the list of peasants prepared by Sobakevich for the execution of the deed of sale that later leads Chichikov, and with him the author and the reader, to the idea that the Russian man contains “limitless possibilities, and therefore his soul is priceless. The main thing is that it was "alive. But this is precisely what Sobakevich does not have: “It seemed that there was no soul in this body at all...” That is why all the wonderful economic qualities of this type of landowner, his practical “acumen, intelligence, efficiency cannot” give hope that people like that will revive Russia.. After all, according to the writer, a business without a soul is nothing. And Gogol is horrified by the thought that the age of such businessmen as Chichikov and such landowners as Sobakevich is rapidly approaching. It is difficult to imagine that a person whose soul, “like that of an immortal Koshchei, is somewhere behind the mountains and is closed by such thick shell,” can be reborn to a new, real, spiritual life. “No, someone who is a fist cannot straighten into a palm,” the writer concludes.

But to the last of the series of landowners - Plyushkin, who, it would seem, stands at the lowest stage of the fall and devastation of the soul, Gogol leaves hope for transformation. If in other chapters the typicality of the characters presented in them is emphasized, then in Plyushkin the writer also sees a kind of exclusivity: even Chichikov, who has seen “a lot of all kinds of people,” has “never seen this before,” and in the author’s description it is said that “ a similar phenomenon rarely occurs in Rus'.” Plyushkin is “some kind of hole in humanity.” The rest of the landowners can be characterized by their attitude towards property as “hoarders” (Korobochka and Sobakevich) and “spendthrifts” (Manilov, Nozdrev). But even such a conventional definition cannot be applied to Plyushkin: he is both a hoarder and a spendthrift at the same time... On the one hand, he is “the richest of all landowners, the owner of a large estate” and thousands of serf souls. But everything that the reader sees with Chichikov suggests a state of extreme desolation: the buildings are rickety, the farm is falling apart, the harvest rots and spoils, and the peasants are dying of hunger and disease or running away from such a life (this is what attracted Chichikov to the village of Plyushkin ). But the owner, who has starved even his servants and is constantly undernourished, is always dragging something into his pile of all sorts of unnecessary rubbish - even a used toothpick, an old dried piece of lemon. He suspects everyone around him of stealing, he feels sorry for money and spending anything at all, it doesn’t even matter what - even for the sale of surplus grain, or for the life of his grandson and daughter. He became a slave to things. Incredible stinginess disfigured him, depriving him not only of his family and children, but also of his normal human appearance. Drawing a portrait of Plyushkin, the author thickens the colors to the limit: Chichikov could not even “recognize what gender the figure was: a woman or a man,” and in the end decided that in front of him was the housekeeper. But, perhaps, even the housekeeper will not wear the rags that this rich landowner wears: on his robe, “the sleeves and upper flaps were so greasy that they looked like yuft, the kind that goes on boots.”

How can a person stoop so low, what led him to this? - this is the question the author asks while drawing Plyushkin. To answer this, Gogol had to slightly change the plan according to which the landowners were depicted in other chapters. We learn the biography of Plyushkin, a kind of “case history” whose name is stinginess.

It turns out that Plyushkin was not always like this. Once he was simply a thrifty and economical owner and a good father, but the loneliness that suddenly set in after the death of his wife exacerbated his already somewhat stingy character. Then the children left, friends died, and stinginess, which became an all-consuming passion, took complete power over him. It led to the fact that Plyushkin generally ceased to feel the need to communicate with people, which led to a severance of family relationships and a reluctance to see guests. Plyushkin even began to perceive his children as property thieves, not experiencing any joy when meeting them. As a result, he finds himself completely alone, which, in turn, has become a breeding ground for further development stinginess. Completely absorbed by this terrible spiritual illness - stinginess and thirst for money - he lost his understanding of the real state of affairs. As a result, Plyushkin cannot distinguish the important and necessary from the little things, the useful from the insignificant. “And a person could stoop to such insignificance, pettiness, and disgustingness! Could have changed so much!” - the writer exclaims and gives a merciless answer: “Everything seems to be true, anything can happen to a person.” It turns out that Plyushkin is not such an exceptional phenomenon. Of course, he himself is largely to blame for the misfortune that happened to him. But under certain conditions, anyone can find themselves in a similar position - and this frightens the writer. It is not for nothing that this chapter contains his lyrical digression about youth and “inhuman old age,” which “gives nothing back.”

Is there any salvation from this misfortune, is it possible to bring a numb soul back to life? After all, nature, even in a state of extreme desolation, is still alive and beautiful, like the “old, vast garden stretching behind the house” on Plyushkin’s estate. Likewise, a person who has retained at least a small spark of a living soul can be reborn and flourish. In any case, Gogol assumed that this was possible, intending to show in the next parts of the poem the story of the revival of Plyushkin’s soul. And the features of this plan are visible in the chapter about Plyushkin. Incredibly, it is Chichikov who awakens in him something similar to a living spiritual movement. Having quickly figured out how to persuade the old man to sell him dead souls, Chichikov focuses on generosity: he is supposedly ready to take upon himself the loss of paying the tax for Plyushkin’s dead peasants solely out of a desire to please him, “Oh, father! Ah, my benefactor! - exclaims the touched old man. He, who has long forgotten what kindness and generosity are, already wishes “all kinds of consolation” not only for Chichikov, but even for his children. Plyushkin's "wooden face" was suddenly illuminated by a completely human feeling - joy, however, "instantly and past, as if it had never happened at all." But this is already enough to understand: after all, something human still remains in him. He was so generous that he was ready to treat his dear guest: Chichikov was offered “crumbs from Easter cake” and “a nice liqueur” from “a decanter that was covered in dust, like a sweatshirt,” and even with “boogers and all sorts of rubbish” inside. And after the departure of his unexpected benefactor, Plyushkin decides to do something completely unprecedented for him: he wants to bequeath his pocket watch. It turns out that so little is needed to stir up this crippled soul at least a little: a little attention, albeit disinterested, participation, support. And a person also needs a close person, someone for whom nothing is sorry. Plyushkin doesn’t have any of those left, but he does have memories that can awaken long-forgotten feelings in this miser. Chichikov asks Plyushkin to name some acquaintance in the city to complete the deed of sale. It turns out that one of his past friends is still alive - the chairman of the chamber, with whom he was friends back in school. The old man remembers his youth, “and suddenly some kind of warm ray slid across this wooden face, not a feeling burst out, but some pale reflection of a feeling.” But this is enough to understand: in this soul, enslaved by the passion for profit, there still remains, albeit a tiny, but living part of it, which means revival is possible. This is the main fundamental difference between Plyushkin and other landowners. shown by Gogol. And the face of landowner Russia, reflected in them, becomes less scary and deadened.

Such, for example, is the official Ivan Antonovich, nicknamed “the jug’s snout,” drawn in quick strokes. He is ready to sell his own soul for a bribe, assuming, of course, that he has a soul. That is why, despite the comic nickname, he does not look funny at all, but rather scary.
Such officials are not an exceptional phenomenon, but a reflection of the entire system of Russian bureaucracy. As in The Government Inspector, Gogol shows a “corporation of thieves and swindlers.” Bureaucracy and corruption of officials reign everywhere. In the court chamber, into which the reader finds himself together with Chichikov, the laws are openly neglected, no one is going to deal with the case, and the officials, the “priests” of this peculiar Themis, are only concerned with how to collect tribute from visitors - that is, bribes. The bribe here is so mandatory that only the closest friends of high-ranking officials can be exempted from it. So, for example, the chairman of the chamber in a friendly manner exempts Chichikov from tribute: “My friends don’t have to pay.”

But what is even more terrible is that in an idle and well-fed life, officials not only forget about their official duty, but also completely lose their spiritual needs, lose their “living soul.” Among the gallery of officialdom in the poem, the image of the prosecutor stands out. All the officials, having learned about Chichikov’s strange purchase, fall into panic, and the prosecutor was so frightened that he died when he came home. And only when he turned into a “soulless body” did they remember that “he had a soul.” Behind the sharp social satire, a philosophical question arises again: why did man live? What's left after him? “But if you take a good look at the case, all you really had was thick eyebrows,” this is how the author ends the story about the prosecutor. But maybe that hero has already appeared who opposes this entire gallery of “dead souls” of Russian reality?

Gogol dreams of his appearance and in the 1st volume he paints a truly new face of Russian life, but not in a positive light. Chichikov - new hero, a special type of Russian person who appeared in that era, a kind of “hero of the time,” whose soul is “enchanted by wealth.” It was precisely when money began to play a decisive role in Russia and to establish itself in society, when independence could only be achieved by relying on capital, that this “scoundrel-acquirer” appeared. In this author’s description of the hero, all the accents are immediately placed: a child of his time, Chichikov, in pursuit of capital, loses the concepts of honor, conscience, and decency. But in a society where the measure of a person’s value is capital, this does not matter: Chichikov is considered a “millionaire”, and therefore accepted as a “decent person”.

In the image of Chichikov they received artistic embodiment such traits as the desire for success at any cost, enterprise, practicality, the ability to pacify one’s desires with “reasonable will”, that is, qualities characteristic of the emerging Russian bourgeoisie, combined with unprincipledness and selfishness. This is not the kind of hero Gogol is waiting for: after all, the thirst for acquisition kills the best human feelings in Chichikov and leaves no room for a “living” soul. Chichikov has knowledge of people, but he needs this to successfully complete his terrible “business” - buying “dead souls”. He is a force, but “terrible and vile.”

The features of this image are associated with the author’s intention to lead Chichikov through the path of purification and rebirth of the soul. In this way, the writer wanted to show everyone the path from the very depths of the fall - “hell” - through “purgatory” to transformation and spiritualization. This is why Chichikov’s role in the overall structure of the writer’s plan is so important. That is why he is endowed with a biography (like Plyushkin), but it is given only at the very end of the 1st volume. Before this, his character is not completely defined: in communicating with everyone, he tries to please the interlocutor, adapts to him. With every new person he meets on his way, he looks different: with Manilov - sheer politeness and complacency, with Nozdryov - an adventurer, with Sobakevich - a zealous owner. He knows how to find an approach to everyone, he finds his own interest and the right words for everyone. Chichikov has knowledge of people, the ability to penetrate their souls. It is not for nothing that he is immediately accepted by everyone in city society: ladies look at him, “city fathers” - high officials - court him, landowners invite him to visit their estates. He is attractive to many, and this is his danger: he seduces the people around him. That is why some researchers believe that there is something devilish in Chichikov’s appearance. Indeed, hunting for dead souls is the devil’s original occupation. It is not for nothing that city gossip, among other things, calls him the Antichrist, and something apocalyptic is visible in the behavior of officials, which is reinforced by the picture of the death of the prosecutor.

But in the image of Chichikov, completely different features stand out - those that would allow the author to lead him through the path of purification. It is no coincidence that the author’s reflections often echo Chichikov’s thoughts (about Sobakevich’s dead peasants, about a young boarder). The basis of the tragedy and at the same time the comedy of this image is that all human feelings in Chichikov are hidden deep inside, and he sees the meaning of life in acquisition. His conscience sometimes awakens, but he quickly calms it down, creating a whole system of self-justifications: “I didn’t make anyone unhappy: I didn’t rob the widow, I didn’t let anyone into the world...”. In the end, Chichikov justifies his crime. This is the path of degradation from which the author warns his hero. The writer calls on Chichikov, and with him the readers, to take the “straight path, similar to the path leading to a magnificent temple,” this is the path of salvation, the revival of the living soul in everyone.

It is not for nothing that the two images that complete the story of Chichikov’s journey in the 1st volume of the poem are so opposite and at the same time so close - the image of the chaise carrying Chichikov and the famous “three bird”. Our strange hero paves the way into the unknown in his constant chaise. As it flies into the distance, it gradually loses its outline, and its place is taken by the image of a “three bird”. The britzka is carrying the “scoundrel-purchaser” along the roads of Russia. buyer of dead souls. She circles off-road from province to province, from one landowner to another, and there seems to be no end to this path. And the “three bird” flies forward, and its swift flight is directed towards the future of the country, its people. But who rides in it and who controls? Maybe this is a hero familiar to us, but who has already chosen the path and is able to show it to others? Where it leads is still unclear to the author himself. But this strange merging of the images of Chichikov’s chaise and the “troika bird” reveals the symbolic ambiguity of the entire artistic structure of the poem and the grandeur author's intention: to create an “epic of the national spirit.” Gogol finished only the first volume, but his work was continued by the writers who came to Russian literature after him.

Artistic originality. According to Gogol, Pushkin best of all grasped the originality of the writing style of the future author of Dead Souls: “Not a single writer had this gift to expose the vulgarity of life so clearly, to be able to outline in such force the vulgarity of a vulgar person, so that all the little things that elude eye, would have flashed large in everyone’s eyes.” Indeed, the main means of depicting Russian life in the poem is artistic detail. Gogol uses it as the main means of typifying heroes. The author identifies in each of them the main, leading feature, which becomes the core artistic image and is “played out” with the help of skillfully selected details. Such leitmotif details of the image are: sugar (Manilov); bags, boxes (Korobochka); animal strength and health (Nozdrev); rough but durable things (Sobakevich); a bunch of rubbish, a hole, a hole (Plyushkin). For example, Manilov’s sweetness, dreaminess, and unreasonable pretentiousness are emphasized by the details of the portrait (“eyes as sweet as sugar”; his “pleasantness” was “too much of the sugar”), details of behavior with people around him (with Chichikov, with his wife and children), and the interior (his office has beautiful furniture - and then there are two
unfinished chairs covered with matting; a dandy candlestick - and next to “some simple copper invalid, lame, curled to one side and covered in fat”), speech details that allow you to create a unique manner of speaking “sweetly” and vaguely (“May day, name day of the heart”; “let me You won't be allowed to do that."

These kinds of leitmotif details are used as a means of characterizing all characters, even episodic ones (for example, Ivan Antonovich has a “jug snout”, the prosecutor has “very black thick eyebrows”) and collective images (“thick and thin” officials). But there are also special artistic media, which are used to create a certain series of images. For example, in order to more clearly highlight what is characteristic of each of the landowners representing generalized types, the author uses a special compositional technique in constructing chapters. It consists of repeating a certain set of plot details, which are arranged in the same sequence. First, the estate, courtyard, and interior of the landowner's house are described, his portrait and author's description are given. Then we see the landowner in his relationship with Chichikov - his manner of behavior, speech, we hear reviews about neighbors and city officials and get acquainted with his home environment. In each of these chapters, we witness a dinner or other treat (sometimes very unique - like Plyushkin's) that Chichikov is treated to - after all, Gogol's hero, an expert on material life and everyday life, is often characterized precisely through food. And in conclusion, a scene of the purchase and sale of “dead souls” is shown, completing the portrait of each landowner. This technique makes it easy to make comparisons. Thus, food as a means of characterization is present in all chapters about landowners: Manilov’s dinner is modest, but with pretension (“cabbage soup, but from the heart”); at Korobochka's - plentiful, in a patriarchal taste (“mushrooms, pies, skorodumki, shanishki, pryagly, pancakes, flat cakes with all sorts of toppings”); Sobakevich serves large and hearty dishes, after which the guest can barely get up from the table (“when I have pork, put the whole pig on the table; lamb, bring the whole lamb”); Nozdryov's food is tasteless, he pays more attention to wine; At Plyushkin’s, instead of dinner, the guest is offered liqueur with flies and “rusks from Easter cake”, left over from the Easter treat.

Of particular note are the household details that reflect the world of things. There are a lot of them, and they carry an important ideological and semantic load: in a world where the soul has been forgotten and has become “dead,” its place is firmly occupied by objects, things to which their owner is firmly attached. That’s why things are personified: such as Korobochka’s clock, which “had a desire to beat,” or Sobakevich’s furniture, where “every object, every chair seemed to say: I, too, Sobakevich!”

Zoological motifs also contribute to the individualization of characters: Manilov is a cat, Sobakevich is a bear, Korobochka is a bird, Nozdryov is a dog, Plyushkin is a mouse. In addition, each of them is accompanied by a specific color scheme. For example, Manilov's estate, his portrait, his wife's clothes - everything is given in gray-blue tones; Sobakevich's clothes are dominated by red-brown colors; Chichikov is remembered for a clear detail: he likes to dress in a tailcoat " lingonberry color with a spark."

The speech characteristics of the characters also arise through the use of details: Manilov’s speech has many introductory words and sentences, he speaks pretentiously, and does not finish the phrase; Nozdryov’s speech contains a lot of swear words, jargon of a gambler, a horseman, he often speaks in alogisms (“he came from God knows where, and I live here”); Officials have their own special language: along with bureaucratic language, when addressing each other they use phrases that are stable in this environment (“You lied, mommy Ivan Grigorievich!”). Even the surnames of many characters characterize them to a certain extent (Sobakevich, Korobochka, Plyushkin). For the same purpose, evaluative epithets and comparisons are used (Korobochka - “club-headed”, Plyushkin - “a hole in humanity”, Sobakevich - “man-fist”).

All together, these artistic means serve to create a comic and satirical effect and show the illogical existence of such people. Sometimes Gogol also uses the grotesque, as, for example, when creating the image of Plyushkin - “a hole in humanity.” This is both a typical and fantastic image. It is created through the accumulation of details: a village, a house, a portrait of the owner and, finally, a bunch of old things.

But the artistic fabric of “Dead Souls” is still heterogeneous, since the poem presents two faces of Russia, which means that the epic is contrasted with the lyrical. Russia of landowners, officials, men - drunkards, lazy people, incompetents - is one “face”, which is depicted using satirical means. Another face of Russia is presented in lyrical digressions: this is the author’s ideal of a country where genuine heroes walk in the open spaces, people live a rich spiritual life and are endowed with a “living” and not a “dead” soul.” That is why the style of lyrical digressions is completely different: satirical -everyday, colloquial vocabulary disappears, the author’s language becomes bookish-romantic, solemnly pathetic, saturated with archaic, bookish vocabulary (“a menacing blizzard of inspiration will rise from a chapter clothed in holy horror and splendor”). This is a high style where colorful metaphors are appropriate, comparisons, epithets (“something ecstatically wonderful,” “daring diva of nature”), rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals (“And what Russian doesn’t like driving fast?”; “Oh my youth! Oh my freshness!”).

This paints a completely different picture of Rus', with its endless expanses and roads running into the distance. The landscape of the lyrical part contrasts sharply with that present in the epic, where it is a means of revealing the characters' characters. In lyrical digressions, the landscape is connected with the theme of the future of Russia and its people, with the motif of the road: “What does this vast expanse prophesy? Isn’t it here, in you, that a boundless thought will be born, when you yourself are endless? Shouldn’t a hero be here when there is a place where he can turn around and walk?” It is this artistic layer of the work that allows us to speak of its truly poetic sound, expressing the writer’s faith in the great future of Russia.

The meaning of the work. The enormous significance of the poem “Dead Souls” for the history of Russian literature, social and Christian-philosophical thought is beyond doubt. This work entered the “golden fund” of Russian literature, and many of its themes, problems, and ideas have not lost their significance even today. But in different eras, representatives of different directions emphasized those aspects of the poem that aroused their greatest interest and response. For such critics of the Slavophile trend as K.S. Aksakov, the main thing was to emphasize the importance of the positive pole of the poem, the glorification of the greatness of Russia. For representatives of democratic criticism, Gogol's work is an invaluable contribution to the development of Russian realism and its critical direction. And Christian philosophers noted the height of the writer’s moral position, which brings the poem closer to a sermon.

Gogol's artistic discoveries in this work largely determined the development of the creativity of leading Russian writers of the second half of the 19th century. The theme of impoverishment and destruction noble estates picked up by I.S. Turgenev, thinking about the causes and consequences of the stagnation of deep Russian life was continued by I.A. Goncharov, and N.A. Nekrasov took the baton in creating the image of people's Russia. The heir to the traditions of Gogol's satire was M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, F.M. Dostoevsky, following Gogol, raised moral and philosophical issues based on Christian positions to unprecedented heights. L.N. Tolstoy continued Gogol’s work in creating large-scale epic paintings, creating the epic “War and Peace,” and A.P. Chekhov creatively developed the line of conjugation in the work of satirical and lyrical principles. In the 20th century, symbolists, especially A. Bely, rethought Gogol’s poem in a new way, but the most significant heir to Gogol’s traditions was M.A. Bulgakov.

Point of view
The controversy over the poem “Dead Souls” began immediately after the work was published, and debates about it have not stopped to this day. Get acquainted with the positions of several representatives of literary critical thought.

V.G. Belinsky:
“And suddenly... there appears a purely Russian, national creation, snatched from the hiding place of people’s life, as true as it is patriotic, mercilessly pulling back the veil from reality and breathing a passionate, nervous, blood-filled love for the fertile grain of Russian life; the creation is immensely artistic in concept and execution, in character characters and the details of Russian life - and at the same time deep in thought social, public, historical... In “Dead Souls” the author took such a great step that everything he had written so far seems weak and pale in comparison with them...

Dead Souls will be read by everyone, but, of course, not everyone will like it. Among the many reasons is that “Dead Souls” does not correspond to the crowd’s concept of a novel as a fairy tale... Gogol’s poem can be fully enjoyed only by those who have access to the thought and artistic execution of the creation, to whom the content is important, and not the “plot” "..."Dead Souls" requires study.

As for us, then... we will only say that Gogol did not jokingly call his novel a “poem” and that he does not mean a comic poem by it. It was not the author who told us this, but his book. We don’t see anything humorous or funny in it... It is impossible to look at “Dead Souls” more erroneously and understand them more crudely, as seeing satire in them.”1

(V.G. Belinsky. The Adventures of Chichikov, or Dead Souls. Poem by N. Gogol, 1842)

K.S. Aksakov:
“We do not at all take upon ourselves the important work of giving an account of this new great work of Gogol, who has already become superior to previous creations; we consider it necessary to say a few words to indicate the point of view from which, it seems to us, we should look at his poem...

Before us, in this work, appears... a pure, true, ancient epic that miraculously arose in Russia... Of course, this epic, the epic of antiquity, which appears in Gogol’s poem “Dead Souls”, is at the same time a phenomenon in extremely free and modern. ...In Gogol's poem, phenomena come one after another, calmly replacing each other, embraced by a great epic contemplation, revealing the whole world, harmoniously presented with its inner content and unity, with its mystery of life. In a word, as we have already said and repeat: the ancient, important epic appears in its majestic flow. ...Yes, this is a poem, and this title proves to you that the author understood what he was producing; understood the greatness and importance of his work...

At the very least, we can, we even have the right to think that in this poem Rus' is widely embraced, and isn’t it possible that the secret of Russian life lies contained in it, and won’t it be expressed artistically here? - Without going into detail about the first part, which, of course, has the same content throughout, we can at least point to its ending, which follows so wonderfully and naturally. Chichikov rides in a chaise, in a troika; the troika rushed off very quickly, and whoever Chichikov was, even though he was a roguish person, and even though many would be completely against him, he was Russian, he loved driving fast - and here immediately this general popular feeling, having arisen, connected him with the whole people, hid it, so to speak; here Chichikov, also a Russian, disappears, is absorbed, merging with the people in this feeling common to all of him. The dust from the road rose and hid him; you can’t see who’s galloping—one rushing troika is visible...Here it penetrates outside and one sees Rus', which lies, we think, in the secret content of his entire poem. And what lines these are, what breathes in them! And how, despite the pettiness of previous persons and relationships in Rus', how powerfully what lies deep was expressed...”

(K.S. Aksakov. A few words about Gogol’s poem:
The Adventures of Chichikov, or Dead Souls, 1842)

D.S. Merezhkovsky:
“It seemed that there was no soul at all in this body,” Gogol notes about Sobakevich. He has a dead soul in a living body. And Manilov, and Nozdryov, and Korobochka, and Plyushkin, and the Prosecutor “with thick eyebrows” - all these are “dead souls” in living bodies. That's why it's so scary with them. This is the fear of death, the fear of a living soul touching the dead. “My soul ached,” Gogol admits, when I saw how many, right there, in the midst of life itself, there were unresponsive dead inhabitants, terrible with the motionless coldness of their souls.” And here, just as in “The Inspector General,” “Egyptian darkness” is approaching... only “pig snouts” are visible instead of human faces. And the most terrible thing is that these “decrepit monsters with sad faces” staring at us, “children of ignorance, Russian freaks,” in the words of Gogol, “were taken from our own land, from Russian reality; despite all their illusory nature, they are “from the same body from which we are”; they are us, reflected in some devilish and yet truthful mirror.

In one of Gogol’s youth fairy tales, in “Terrible Revenge,” “the dead gnaw the dead” - “pale, pale, one taller than the other, one more bony than the other.” Among them is “another one, taller than all, more terrible than all, rooted in the ground, a great, great dead man.” So here, in “Dead Souls,” among other dead people, the “great, great dead man” Chichikov grows, rises, and his real human image, refracted in the fog of the damn haze, becomes an incredible “bogeyman.”

Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol worked on this work for 17 years. According to the writer's plan, the grandiose literary work was to consist of three volumes. Gogol himself more than once reported that the idea for the work was suggested to him by Pushkin. Alexander Sergeevich was also one of the first listeners of the poem.

Work on “Dead Souls” was difficult. The writer changed the concept several times and reworked certain parts. Gogol worked on the first volume alone, which was published in 1842, for six years.

A few days before his death, the writer burned the manuscript of the second volume, of which only drafts of the first four and one of the last chapters survived. The author never got around to starting the third volume.

At first, Gogol considered “Dead Souls” satirical a novel in which he intended to show “all of Rus'.” But in 1840 the writer became seriously ill, and was healed literally by a miracle. Nikolai Vasilyevich decided that this was a sign - the Creator himself was demanding that he create something that would serve the spiritual revival of Russia. Thus, the concept of “Dead Souls” was rethought. The idea arose to create a trilogy similar to Dante’s “Divine Comedy”. This is where the genre definition of the author - a poem - arose.

Gogol believed that in the first volume it was necessary to show the decomposition of serf society, its spiritual impoverishment. In the second, to give hope for the cleansing of “dead souls.” In the third, the revival of a new Russia was already planned.

The basis of the plot the poem became an official's scam Pavel Ivanovich Chichikov. Its essence was as follows. A census of serfs was carried out in Russia every 10 years. Therefore, peasants who died between censuses were considered alive according to official documents (revision tales). Chichikov’s goal is to buy up “dead souls” at a low price, and then pawn them in the guardianship council and get a lot of money. The fraudster hopes that the landowners will benefit from such a deal: they do not have to pay taxes on the deceased until the next audit. In search of “dead souls” Chichikov travels around Russia.

This plot outline allowed the author to create a social panorama of Russia. In the first chapter, Chichikov is introduced, then the author describes his meetings with landowners and officials. Final chapter again dedicated to the swindler. The image of Chichikov and his purchase of dead souls are united storyline works.

The landowners in the poem are typical representatives of people of their circle and time: spendthrifts (Manilov and Nozdrev), hoarders (Sobakevich and Korobochka). This gallery is completed by a spender and a hoarder rolled into one - Plyushkin.

Image of Manilov especially successful. This hero gave the name to a whole phenomenon of Russian reality - “Manilovism”. In his interactions with others, Manilov is soft to the point of cloying, loving posing in everything, but an empty and completely inactive owner. Gogol showed a sentimental dreamer who can only arrange the ashes knocked out of a pipe in beautiful rows. Manilov is stupid and lives in the world of his useless fantasies.

landowner Nozdryov, on the contrary, is very active. But his ebullient energy is not directed at all to economic concerns. Nozdryov is a gambler, a spendthrift, a reveler, a braggart, an empty and frivolous person. If Manilov strives to please everyone, then Nozdryov constantly causes mischief. Not out of malice, really, that’s his nature.

Nastasya Petrovna Korobochka- a type of economical, but narrow-minded and conservative landowner, quite tight-fisted. Her interests include pantry, barns and poultry houses. Korobochka even went to the nearest town twice in her life. In everything that goes beyond her everyday concerns, the landowner is impossibly stupid. The author calls her “club-headed.”

Mikhail Semenovich Sobakevich the writer identifies it with a bear: he is clumsy and clumsy, but strong and strong. The landowner is primarily interested in the practicality and durability of things, and not in their beauty. Sobakevich, despite his rough appearance, has a sharp mind and cunning. This is an evil and dangerous predator, the only landowner capable of accepting the new capitalist way of life. Gogol notes that the time for such cruel business people is coming.

Image of Plyushkin does not fit into any framework. The old man himself is malnourished, starving the peasants, and a lot of food is rotting in his pantries, Plyushkin's chests are filled with expensive things that are becoming unusable. Incredible stinginess deprives this man of his family.

The bureaucracy in “Dead Souls” is a thoroughly corrupt company of thieves and swindlers. In the system of city bureaucracy, the writer paints with large strokes the image of a “jug’s snout”, ready to sell his own mother for a bribe. The narrow-minded police chief and alarmist prosecutor, who died of fear because of Chichikov’s scam, is no better.

The main character is a rogue, in whom some traits of other characters are discernible. He is amiable and prone to posing (Manilov), petty (Korobochka), greedy (Plyushkin), enterprising (Sobakevich), narcissistic (Nozdryov). Among officials, Pavel Ivanovich feels confident because he has passed all the universities of fraud and bribery. But Chichikov is smarter and more educated than those with whom he deals. He is an excellent psychologist: he delights provincial society, masterfully bargains with every landowner.

The writer put a special meaning into the title of the poem. These are not only dead peasants whom Chichikov buys up. By “dead souls” Gogol understands the emptiness and lack of spirituality of his characters. There is nothing sacred for the money-grubbing Chichikov. Plyushkin has lost all human semblance. The box doesn’t mind digging up coffins for profit. At Nozdrev's, only the dogs have a good life; their own children are abandoned. Manilov's soul sleeps soundly. There is not a drop of decency and nobility in Sobakevich.

The landowners in the second volume look different. Tentetnikov- a philosopher disillusioned with everything. He is immersed in thought and does not do housework, but is smart and talented. Kostanzhoglo and a completely exemplary landowner. Millionaire Murazov also arouses sympathy. He forgives Chichikov and stands up for him, helping Khlobuev.

But we never saw the rebirth of the main character. A person who has let the “golden calf” into his soul, a bribe-taker, an embezzler and a swindler, is unlikely to be able to become different.

During his lifetime the writer did not find the answer to main question: where is Rus' rushing like a fast troika? But “Dead Souls” remains a reflection of Russia in the 30s of the 19th century and an amazing gallery satirical images, many of which have become household names. “Dead Souls” is a striking phenomenon in Russian literature. The poem opened up a whole direction in her, which Belinsky called "critical realism".

Gogol's work “Dead Souls” was written in the second half of the 19th century. The first volume was published in 1842, the second volume was almost completely destroyed by the author. And the third volume was never written. The plot of the work was suggested to Gogol. The poem tells about a middle-aged gentleman, Pavel Ivanovich Chichikov, traveling around Russia with the aim of buying so-called dead souls - peasants who are no longer alive, but who are still listed as alive according to documents. Gogol wanted to show all of Russia, the entire Russian soul in its breadth and immensity.

Gogol’s poem “Dead Souls” can be read in a chapter-by-chapter summary below. In the above version, the main characters are described, the most significant fragments are highlighted, with the help of which you can form a complete picture of the content of this poem. Reading Gogol’s “Dead Souls” online will be useful and relevant for 9th graders.

Main characters

Pavel Ivanovich Chichikov- the main character of the poem, a middle-aged college adviser. He travels around Russia with the aim of buying up dead souls, knows how to find an approach to every person, which he constantly uses.

Other characters

Manilov- landowner, no longer young. In the first minute you think only pleasant things about him, and after that you no longer know what to think. He is not concerned about everyday difficulties; lives with his wife and two sons, Themistoclus and Alcides.

Box- an elderly woman, a widow. She lives in a small village, runs the household herself, sells food and fur. Stingy woman. She knew the names of all the peasants by heart and did not keep written records.

Sobakevich- a landowner, looking for profit in everything. With its massiveness and clumsiness it resembled a bear. He agrees to sell dead souls to Chichikov even before he even talks about it.

Nozdryov- a landowner who cannot sit at home for a day. He loves to party and play cards: hundreds of times he lost to smithereens, but still continued to play; He was always the hero of some story, and he himself was a master at telling tall tales. His wife died, leaving a child, but Nozdryov did not care about family matters at all.

Plyushkin- an unusual person appearance which is difficult to determine to which class he belongs. Chichikov at first mistook him for an old housekeeper. He lives alone, although his estate used to be full of life.

Selifan- coachman, Chichikov's servant. He drinks a lot, is often distracted from the road, and likes to think about the eternal. 

Volume 1

Chapter 1

A carriage with an ordinary, unremarkable car enters the city of NN. He checked into a hotel, which, as often happens, was poor and dirty. The gentleman's luggage was carried in by Selifan (a short man in a sheepskin coat) and Petrushka (a young man about 30 years old). The traveler almost immediately went to the inn to find out who was occupying leadership positions in this city. At the same time, the gentleman tried not to talk about himself at all, nevertheless, everyone with whom the gentleman spoke was able to form the most pleasant description of him. Along with this, the author very often emphasizes the insignificance of the character.

During dinner, the guest finds out from the servant who is the chairman of the city, who is the governor, how many rich landowners are, the visitor did not miss a single detail.

Chichikov meets Manilov and the clumsy Sobakevich, whom he quickly managed to charm with his manners and ability to behave in public: he could always carry on a conversation on any topic, he was polite, attentive and courteous. People who knew him spoke only positively about Chichikov. At the card table he behaved like an aristocrat and a gentleman, even arguing in a particularly pleasant way, for example, “you deigned to go.”

Chichikov hastened to pay visits to all the officials of this city in order to win them over and show his respect.

Chapter 2

Chichikov had been living in the city for more than a week, spending his time carousing and feasting. He made many useful contacts and was a welcome guest at various receptions. While Chichikov was spending time at another dinner party, the author introduces the reader to his servants. Petrushka wore a wide frock coat from a lordly shoulder and had a large nose and lips. He was of a silent nature. He loved to read, but he liked the process of reading much more than the subject of reading. Parsley always carried “his special smell” with him, ignoring Chichikov’s requests to go to the bathhouse. The author did not describe the coachman Selifan, saying that he belonged to too low a class, and the reader prefers landowners and counts.

Chichikov went to the village to Manilov, which “could lure few with its location.” Although Manilov said that the village was only 15 versts from the city, Chichikov had to travel almost twice as far. At first glance, Manilov was a distinguished man, his facial features were pleasant, but too sweet. You won’t get a single living word from him; it was as if Manilov lived in an imaginary world. Manilov had nothing of his own, no peculiarity of his own. He spoke little, most often thinking about lofty matters. When a peasant or clerk asked the master about something, he answered: “Yes, not bad,” without caring about what would happen next.

In Manilov’s office there was a book that the master had been reading for the second year, and the bookmark, once left on page 14, remained in place. Not only Manilov, but also the house itself suffered from a lack of something special. It was as if something was always missing in the house: the furniture was expensive, and there wasn’t enough upholstery for two chairs; in the other room there was no furniture at all, but they were always going to put it there. The owner spoke touchingly and tenderly to his wife. She was a match for her husband - a typical girl's boarding school student. She was trained in French, dancing and playing the piano to please and entertain her husband. Often they spoke tenderly and reverently, like young lovers. One got the impression that the couple did not care about everyday trifles.

Chichikov and Manilov stood in the doorway for several minutes, letting each other go ahead: “do me a favor, don’t worry so much about me, I’ll pass later,” “don’t make it difficult, please don’t make it difficult. Please come in." As a result, both passed at the same time, sideways, touching each other. Chichikov agreed with Manilov in everything, who praised the governor, the police chief, and others.

Chichikov was surprised by Manilov's children, two sons six and eight years old, Themistoclus and Alcides. Manilov wanted to show off his children, but Chichikov did not notice any special talents in them. After lunch, Chichikov decided to talk with Manilov about one very important matter - about dead peasants who, according to documents, are still listed as alive - about dead souls. In order to “relieve Manilov of the need to pay taxes,” Chichikov asks Manilov to sell him documents for the now non-existent peasants. Manilov was somewhat discouraged, but Chichikov convinced the landowner of the legality of such a deal. Manilov decided to give away the “dead souls” for free, after which Chichikov hastily began to get ready to see Sobakevich, pleased with the successful acquisition.

Chapter 3

Chichikov went to Sobakevich in high spirits. Selifan, the coachman, was arguing with the horse, and, carried away by thoughts, stopped watching the road. The travelers got lost.
The chaise drove off-road for a long time until it hit a fence and overturned. Chichikov was forced to ask for overnight accommodation from the old woman, who let them in only after Chichikov told about his noble title.

The owner was an elderly woman. She can be called thrifty: there were a lot of old things in the house. The woman was dressed tastelessly, but with pretensions to elegance. The lady's name was Korobochka Nastasya Petrovna. She didn’t know any Manilov, from which Chichikov concluded that they had drifted into quite the wilderness.

Chichikov woke up late. His laundry was dried and washed by the fussy Korobochka worker. Pavel Ivanovich did not stand on ceremony with Korobochka, allowing himself to be rude. Nastasya Filippovna was a college secretary, her husband had died long ago, so the entire household was her responsibility. Chichikov did not miss the opportunity to inquire about dead souls. He had to persuade Korobochka for a long time, who was also bargaining. Korobochka knew all the peasants by name, so she did not keep written records.

Chichikov was tired from a long conversation with the hostess, and was rather glad not that he received less than twenty souls from her, but that this dialogue was over. Nastasya Filippovna, delighted with the sale, decided to sell Chichikov flour, lard, straw, fluff and honey. To appease the guest, she ordered the maid to bake pancakes and pies, which Chichikov ate with pleasure, but politely refused other purchases.

Nastasya Filippovna sent a little girl with Chichikov to show the way. The chaise had already been repaired and Chichikov moved on.

Chapter 4

The chaise drove up to the tavern. The author admits that Chichikov had an excellent appetite: the hero ordered chicken, veal and pig with sour cream and horseradish. At the tavern, Chichikov asked about the owner, his sons, their wives, and at the same time found out where each landowner lived. At the tavern, Chichikov met Nozdryov, with whom he had previously dined with the prosecutor. Nozdryov was cheerful and drunk: he had lost at cards again. Nozdryov laughed at Chichikov’s plans to go to Sobakevich, persuading Pavel Ivanovich to come visit him first. Nozdryov was sociable, the life of the party, a carouser and a talker. His wife died early, leaving two children, whom Nozdryov was absolutely not involved in raising. He could not sit at home for more than a day; his soul demanded feasts and adventures. Nozdryov had an amazing attitude towards dating: the closer he got to a person, the more fables he told. At the same time, Nozdryov managed not to quarrel with anyone after that.

Nozdryov loved dogs very much and even kept a wolf. The landowner boasted so much about his possessions that Chichikov was tired of inspecting them, although Nozdryov even attributed a forest to his lands, which could not possibly be his property. At the table, Nozdryov poured wine for the guests, but added little for himself. In addition to Chichikov, Nozdryov’s son-in-law was visiting, with whom Pavel Ivanovich did not dare talk about the true motives of his visit. However, the son-in-law soon got ready to go home, and Chichikov was finally able to ask Nozdryov about dead souls.

He asked Nozdryov to transfer the dead souls to himself without revealing his true motives, but this only intensified Nozdryov’s interest. Chichikov is forced to come up with various stories: supposedly dead souls are needed to gain weight in society or to get married successfully, but Nozdryov senses the falsehood, so he allows himself to make rude statements about Chichikov. Nozdryov invites Pavel Ivanovich to buy from him a stallion, mare or dog, complete with which he will give away his souls. Nozdryov didn’t want to give away dead souls just like that.

The next morning, Nozdryov behaved as if nothing had happened, inviting Chichikov to play checkers. If Chichikov wins, then Nozdryov will transfer all the dead souls to him. Both played dishonestly, Chichikov was greatly exhausted by the game, but the police officer unexpectedly came to Nozdryov, informing him that from now on Nozdryov was on trial for beating a landowner. Taking advantage of this opportunity, Chichikov hastened to leave Nozdryov’s estate.

Chapter 5

Chichikov was glad that he left Nozdryov empty-handed. Chichikov was distracted from his thoughts by an accident: a horse harnessed to Pavel Ivanovich’s chaise got mixed up with a horse from another harness. Chichikov was fascinated by the girl who was sitting in another cart. He thought about the beautiful stranger for a long time.

Sobakevich's village seemed huge to Chichikov: gardens, stables, barns, peasant houses. Everything seemed to be made to last. Sobakevich himself seemed to Chichikov to look like a bear. Everything about Sobakevich was massive and clumsy. Each item was ridiculous, as if it said: “I, too, look like Sobakevich.” Sobakevich spoke disrespectfully and rudely about other people. From him Chichikov learned about Plyushkin, whose peasants were dying like flies.

Sobakevich reacted calmly to the offer of dead souls, even offering to sell them before Chichikov himself spoke about it. The landowner behaved strangely, raising the price, praising the already dead peasants. Chichikov was dissatisfied with the deal with Sobakevich. It seemed to Pavel Ivanovich that it was not he who was trying to deceive the landowner, but Sobakevich.
Chichikov went to Plyushkin.

Chapter 6

Lost in his thoughts, Chichikov did not notice that he had entered the village. In the village of Plyushkina, the windows in the houses were without glass, the bread was damp and moldy, the gardens were abandoned. The results of human labor were nowhere to be seen. Near Plyushkin’s house there were many buildings overgrown with green mold.

Chichikov was met by the housekeeper. The master was not at home, the housekeeper invited Chichikov to his chambers. There were a lot of things piled up in the rooms, it was impossible to understand in the heaps what exactly was there, everything was covered in dust. From the appearance of the room it cannot be said that a living person lived here.

A bent man, unshaven, in a washed-out robe entered the chambers. The face was nothing special. If Chichikov met this man on the street, he would give him alms.

This man turned out to be the landowner himself. There was a time when Plyushkin was a thrifty owner, and his house was full of life. Now strong feelings were not reflected in the old man’s eyes, but his forehead betrayed his remarkable intelligence. Plyushkin's wife died, his daughter ran away with a military man, his son went to the city, and youngest daughter died. The house became empty. Guests rarely visited Plyushkin, and Plyushkin did not want to see his runaway daughter, who sometimes asked her father for money. The landowner himself started a conversation about the dead peasants, because he was glad to get rid of dead souls, although after a while suspicion appeared in his gaze.

Chichikov refused treats, impressed by the dirty dishes. Plyushkin decided to bargain, manipulating his plight. Chichikov bought 78 souls from him, forcing Plyushkin to write a receipt. After the deal, Chichikov, as before, hurried to leave. Plyushkin locked the gate behind the guest, walked around his property, storerooms and kitchen, and then thought about how to thank Chichikov.

Chapter 7

Chichikov had already acquired 400 souls, so he wanted to quickly finish his business in this city. He examined and put everything in order necessary documents. All the peasants of Korobochka were distinguished by strange nicknames, Chichikov was dissatisfied that their names took up a lot of space on paper, Plyushkin’s note was brevity, Sobakevich’s notes were complete and detailed. Chichikov thought about how each person passed away, making guesses in his imagination and playing out entire scenarios.

Chichikov went to court to have all the documents certified, but there he was made to understand that without a bribe things would take a long time, and Chichikov would still have to stay in the city for a while. Sobakevich, who accompanied Chichikov, convinced the chairman of the legality of the transaction, Chichikov said that he had bought the peasants for removal to the Kherson province.

The police chief, officials and Chichikov decided to complete the paperwork with lunch and a game of whist. Chichikov was cheerful and told everyone about his lands near Kherson.

Chapter 8

The whole city is gossiping about Chichikov’s purchases: why does Chichikov need peasants? Did the landowners really sell so much to the newcomer? good peasants, and not thieves and drunkards? Will the peasants change in the new land?
The more rumors there were about Chichikov's wealth, the more they loved him. The ladies of the city of NN considered Chichikov a very attractive person. In general, the ladies of the city of N themselves were presentable, dressed with taste, were strict in their morals, and all their intrigues remained secret.

Chichikov found an anonymous love letter, which interested him incredibly. At the reception, Pavel Ivanovich could not understand which of the girls wrote to him. The traveler was a success with the ladies, but he was so carried away by small talk that he forgot to approach the hostess. The governor's wife was at the reception with her daughter, whose beauty Chichikov was captivated - not a single lady interested Chichikov anymore.

At the reception, Chichikov met Nozdryov, who, with his cheeky behavior and drunken conversations, put Chichikov in an uncomfortable position, so Chichikov was forced to leave the reception.

Chapter 9

The author introduces the reader to two ladies, friends who met early in the morning. They talked about women's little things. Alla Grigorievna was partly a materialist, prone to denial and doubt. The ladies were gossiping about the newcomer. Sofya Ivanovna, the second woman, is unhappy with Chichikov because he flirted with many ladies, and Korobochka completely let slip about dead souls, adding to her story the story of how Chichikov deceived her by throwing 15 rubles in banknotes. Alla Grigorievna suggested that, thanks to the dead souls, Chichikov wants to impress the governor’s daughter in order to steal her from her father’s house. The ladies listed Nozdryov as Chichikov’s accomplice.

The city was buzzing: the question of dead souls worried everyone. The ladies discussed more the story of the kidnapping of the girl, supplementing it with all imaginable and inconceivable details, and the men discussed the economic side of the issue. All this led to the fact that Chichikov was not allowed on the threshold and was no longer invited to dinners. As luck would have it, Chichikov was at the hotel all this time because he was unlucky enough to get sick.

Meanwhile, the city residents, in their assumptions, went so far as to tell the prosecutor everything.

Chapter 10

Residents of the city gathered at the police chief. Everyone wondered who Chichikov was, where he came from and whether he was hiding from the law. The postmaster tells the story of Captain Kopeikin.

In this chapter, the story about Captain Kopeikin is included in the text of Dead Souls.

Captain Kopeikin had his arm and leg torn off during a military campaign in the 1920s. Kopeikin decided to ask the king for help. The man was amazed by the beauty of St. Petersburg and the high prices for food and housing. Kopeikin waited to receive the general for about 4 hours, but he was asked to come later. The audience between Kopeikin and the governor was postponed several times, Kopeikin’s faith in justice and the tsar became less and less each time. The man was running out of money for food, and the capital became disgusting due to pathos and spiritual emptiness. Captain Kopeikin decided to sneak into the general’s reception room to definitely get an answer to his question. He decided to stand there until the sovereign looked at him. The general instructed the courier to deliver Kopeikin to a new place, where he would be completely in the care of the state. Kopeikin, overjoyed, went with the courier, but no one else saw Kopeikin.

All those present admitted that Chichikov could not possibly be Captain Kopeikin, because Chichikov had all his limbs in place. Nozdryov told many different fables and, getting carried away, said that he personally came up with a plan to kidnap the governor’s daughter.

Nozdryov went to visit Chichikov, who was still ill. The landowner told Pavel Ivanovich about the situation in the city and the rumors that were circulating about Chichikov.

Chapter 11

In the morning, everything did not go according to plan: Chichikov woke up later than planned, the horses were not shod, the wheel was faulty. After a while everything was ready.

On the way, Chichikov met a funeral procession - the prosecutor died. Next, the reader learns about Pavel Ivanovich Chichikov himself. The parents were nobles who had only one serf family. One day, his father took little Pavel with him to the city to send his child to school. The father ordered his son to listen to teachers and please bosses, not to make friends, and to save money. At school, Chichikov was distinguished by his diligence. Since childhood, he understood how to increase money: he sold pies from the market to hungry classmates, trained a mouse to perform magic tricks for a fee, and sculpted wax figures.

Chichikov was in good standing. After some time, he moved his family to the city. Chichikov was attracted by a rich life, he actively tried to make his way into the people, but with difficulty he got into the government chamber. Chichikov did not hesitate to use people for his own purposes; he was not ashamed of such an attitude. After an incident with one old official, whose daughter Chichikov even planned to marry in order to get a position, Chichikov’s career took off sharply. And that official talked for a long time about how Pavel Ivanovich deceived him.

He served in many departments, cheated and cheated everywhere, launched an entire campaign against corruption, although he himself was a bribe-taker. Chichikov began construction, but several years later the declared house was never built, but those who supervised the construction got new buildings. Chichikov became involved in smuggling, for which he was put on trial.

He started his career again from the bottom rung. He was engaged in transferring documents for peasants to the guardianship council, where he was paid for each peasant. But one day Pavel Ivanovich was informed that even if the peasants died, but were listed as alive according to the records, the money would still be paid. So Chichikov came up with the idea of ​​​​buying peasants who were dead in fact, but alive according to documents, in order to sell their souls to the guardianship council.

Volume 2

The chapter begins with a description of the nature and lands belonging to Andrei Tentetnikov, a 33-year-old gentleman who thoughtlessly wastes his time: he woke up late, took a long time to wash his face, “he was not a bad person, he’s just a smoker of the sky.” After a series of unsuccessful reforms aimed at improving the lives of peasants, he stopped communicating with others, completely gave up, and became mired in the same infinity of everyday life.

Chichikov comes to Tentetnikov and, using his ability to find an approach to any person, stays with Andrei Ivanovich for some time. Chichikov was now more careful and delicate when it came to dead souls. Chichikov hasn’t talked about this with Tentetnikov yet, but with conversations about marriage he revived Andrei Ivanovich a little.

Chichikov goes to General Betrishchev, a man of majestic appearance, who combined many advantages and many shortcomings. Betrishchev introduces Chichikov to his daughter Ulenka, with whom Tentetnikov is in love. Chichikov joked a lot, which was how he was able to win the favor of the general. Taking this opportunity, Chichikov makes up a story about an old uncle who is obsessed with dead souls, but the general does not believe him, considering it another joke. Chichikov is in a hurry to leave.

Pavel Ivanovich goes to Colonel Koshkarev, but ends up with Pyotr Rooster, whom he finds completely naked while hunting for sturgeon. Having learned that the estate was mortgaged, Chichikov wanted to leave, but here he meets the landowner Platonov, who talks about ways to increase wealth, which Chichikov is inspired by.

Colonel Koshkarev, who divided his lands into plots and manufactories, also had nothing to profit from, so Chichikov, accompanied by Platonov and Konstanzhoglo, goes to Kholobuev, who sells his estate for next to nothing. Chichikov gives a deposit for the estate, borrowing the amount from Konstanzhglo and Platonov. In the house, Pavel Ivanovich expected to see empty rooms, but “he was struck by the mixture of poverty with the shiny trinkets of later luxury.” Chichikov receives dead souls from his neighbor Lenitsyn, charming him with his ability to tickle a child. The story ends.

It can be assumed that some time has passed since the purchase of the estate. Chichikov comes to the fair to buy fabric for a new suit. Chichikov meets Kholobuev. He is dissatisfied with Chichikov’s deception, because of which he almost lost his inheritance. Denunciations are discovered against Chichikov regarding the deception of Kholobuev and dead souls. Chichikov is arrested.

Murazov, a recent acquaintance of Pavel Ivanovich, a tax farmer who fraudulently made himself a million-dollar fortune, finds Pavel Ivanovich in the basement. Chichikov tears out his hair and mourns the loss of a box of securities: Chichikov was not allowed to dispose of many personal belongings, including the box, which contained enough money to give a deposit for himself. Murazov motivates Chichikov to live honestly, not break the law and not deceive people. It seems that his words were able to touch certain strings in Pavel Ivanovich’s soul. Officials hoping to receive a bribe from Chichikov are confusing the matter. Chichikov leaves the city.
 

Conclusion

“Dead Souls” shows a broad and truthful picture of life in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. Along with beautiful nature, picturesque villages in which the originality of the Russian people is felt, greed, stinginess and the never-vanishing desire for profit are shown against the backdrop of space and freedom. The arbitrariness of the landowners, the poverty and lack of rights of the peasants, the hedonistic understanding of life, bureaucracy and irresponsibility - all this is depicted in the text of the work, as in a mirror. Meanwhile, Gogol believes in a bright future, because it is not for nothing that the second volume was conceived as “the moral cleansing of Chichikov.” It is in this work that Gogol’s manner of reflecting reality is most clearly noticeable.

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