Tools. Primitive tools

But what was she like? What did the Cro-Magnon do in his free time? What ancient tools can be seen in our time?

You will find answers to all these questions by reading this article.

Meaning of the term

This concept first appeared in the works of Karl Marx. He defines it as a “mechanical means of labor.” It was thanks to the classification of finds and the compilation of a periodization of the increasingly complex production of objects that the German scientist confirmed his theory of social evolution.

That is, to put it in a more understandable language, a tool is any object thanks to which we influence natural materials and obtain the things we need. For example, if you take a spear and kill a mammoth, the whole tribe will be fed and clothed. In this case, the spear is a hunting and labor tool.

Activities of Ancient Man

According to Darwin's theory, man evolved from apes. Indeed, archaeologists are finding the remains of mammals that bear the features of apes and humans.
Ramapithecus, Australopithecus, Pithecanthropus, Neanderthal... These are transitional stages from the animal world to man.

Our modern species is called Homo sapiens or Cro-Magnon. Its appearance dates back to 40,000 years ago.

The feature that distinguished people from animals was then speech and the ability to consciously influence events. That is, a person learned to produce ancient tools, the names of which we do not know, but we can restore their appearance.

What did our distant ancestors do? All forces were aimed at survival. The average life expectancy was no more than thirty years. Hunger, predators, quarrels with neighboring tribes, disease - all these factors made life much more difficult primitive people.

Thus, hunting and gathering were aimed at feeding the tribe. Sewing and dressing of skins - to clothe people and insulate homes.

Hunting

The basis of the diet ancient man was meat. He did not yet know how to grow cereals and garden crops, and wild edible plants are not found so often and do not grow thickly. In addition, they ripen once, maximum twice a year.

Therefore, hunting was the main activity that ancient people practiced. The tools were appropriate for this. You may ask how we know this. After all, most materials are simply not capable of lying in the ground for so many years and being preserved. This is true, but bone and stone are less susceptible to destruction, especially in frozen or dry soil.

In addition, today there are many tribes that still live under the primitive communal system. These are hunter-gatherers of southern Africa, Australia, the Pacific Islands and the Amazon. By studying them, ethnographers reproduce things that existed hundreds of thousands of years ago.

In particular, they hunted with sticks and stones. Later, knives, sharpened spears and harpoons, similar to spears, appeared. Over time, darts and bows and arrows were created.

All these ancient tools helped man become faster and stronger than the surrounding fauna. After all, our ancestors had neither sharp teeth nor claws.

Gathering

When ancient tools are studied, names are invented for them along the way. So, for example, the term “digging stick” appeared. How else can you say about an object that is used to get roots out of the ground, but it doesn’t even remotely look like a shovel?

In general, ancient people made maximum use of most items. That is, the knife replaced a shovel, fork, weapon, and sometimes a scraper. Since it was difficult to produce such utensils, the items were highly valued. Names were given to especially good and successful ones, and they were inherited.

For example, to obtain the plates necessary for one knife, sometimes it was necessary to make more than a hundred blows on the workpiece - the core. After all, flint does not always peel off in the desired direction even when used modern technologies, what can we say about the impact of an ordinary stone?

Sticks and stones were used to collect fruit from the branches, and fragments of bones, knives, and digging sticks were used for digging.

First production

They were extremely practical. They were intended for rough action and basic processing. There has not yet been any talk about any jewelry details or filigree work of the craftsmen.

Today we know cores and scrapers, knives that were first made from solid pieces and later assembled from flakes. Later, chisels, axes and other tools appeared.

What was the main concern of people in those difficult times? Safety, food, warmth. To live, they built natural shelters - caves, ledges, and hollows. Over time, they learned to build huts and make fire.

We talked about ways to provide food above. What about the heat? What were the ancient tools in this case and how were they used? Let us immediately note that improvised objects were used. Skin scrapers and knives were made from silicon. This mineral has amazing properties. On the one hand, it exfoliates well, on the other, it is very strong.

The needles were made from fragments of animal or fish bones. Although initially it was just an awl. The ear appeared in it much later.

The chisel, hammer, and drill appeared when the need for them arose. These tools were used, as they are today, for building houses, hollowing out boats and other work.

The role of tools in human development

Scientists today are interested not only in ancient people. The tools themselves also carry a lot of information.

Firstly, judging by the complexity of the subjects, we can draw a conclusion about the development of relations in society, the formation of teams from among individuals. You can hunt alone, for example, an antelope. But it will be difficult to kill and eat a mammoth alone, even with the help of close relatives.

And the tribe had traditions that placed the interests of the group above the aspirations of individuals. Therefore, spear throwers preceding bows indicate the development of speech and organization of actions. This means that at that time leaders were already beginning to emerge who were able to unite the team and lead the group towards the goal.

Secondly, by studying ancient tools, we can notice that they are similar to each other even after thousands of years. That is, there was a process of learning how to produce them.

Ancient tools today

Today, of course, we are spoiled by the level of technological development, but in campaigns the role of the knife and pole has not yet been canceled. But this is a retreat.

Modern realities are such that in order to meet a person who professionally handles a spear thrower or a bow, you need to travel to remote areas of the planet. The Bushmen, for example, still live in the African savannah. They don’t really understand the objects we use. Therefore, nowadays they are no longer traumatized by the forced imposition of the “benefits of civilization.” Researchers are simply studying their lifestyle and way of life.

Spears and boomerangs, bows and bolas are successfully used today on different continents. However, the level of development of the tribes is indicated by their set of tools.

For example, the Australian aborigines do not know the bow, which they already know how to use in Africa. In the Amazon basin and on the prairies, bolas (two weights fastened with a leather strap) are common - a prototype of a sling. And they don’t really need onions yet.

Museums - visual aids for students

Now imagine that your child at school was asked to draw similar instruments on paper. And he turned to you for help. How to draw ancient tools? You don’t have to go to Australia to see a digging stick for this.

Today this is completely unnecessary. You can admire the extensive collections of finds in any archaeological or ethnographic museum.

Good luck, dear readers!

Modern schoolchildren, once inside the walls of a historical museum, usually laugh as they go through the exhibition where Stone Age tools are displayed. They seem so primitive and simple that they do not even deserve special attention from visitors to the exhibition. However, in fact, these Stone Age humans are clear evidence of how he evolved from apes to Homo sapiens. It is extremely interesting to trace this process, but historians and archaeologists can only direct the minds of the curious in the right direction. Indeed, at the moment, almost everything that they know about the Stone Age is based on the study of these very simple tools. But the development of primitive people was actively influenced by society, religious ideas and climate. Unfortunately, archaeologists of past centuries did not take these factors into account at all when characterizing this or that period of the Stone Age. Scientists began to carefully study the tools of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic much later. And they were literally delighted with how skillfully primitive people handled stone, sticks and bone - the most accessible and widespread materials at that time. Today we will tell you about the main tools of the Stone Age and their purpose. We will also try to recreate the production technology of some items. And we will definitely provide photos with the names of Stone Age tools, which are most often found in historical museums our country.

Brief characteristics of the Stone Age

At the moment, scientists believe that the Stone Age can be safely attributed to the most important cultural and historical layer, which is still quite poorly studied. Some experts argue that this period does not have clear time boundaries, because official science established them based on the study of finds made in Europe. But she did not take into account that many peoples of Africa were in the Stone Age until their acquaintance with more developed cultures. It is known that some tribes still process animal skins and carcasses with objects made of stone. Therefore, talk about the fact that the tools of the Stone Age people are the distant past of mankind is premature.

Based on official data, we can say that the Stone Age began approximately three million years ago from the moment when the first hominid living in Africa thought of using stone for its own purposes.

When studying Stone Age tools, archaeologists often cannot determine their purpose. This can be done by observing tribes that have a similar level of development to primitive people. Thanks to this, many objects become more understandable, as well as the technology of their manufacture.

Stone Age Historians have divided it into several fairly large time periods: Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic. In each, the tools gradually improved and became more and more skillful. At the same time, their purpose also changed over time. It is noteworthy that archaeologists distinguish Stone Age tools by the place where they were found. In the northern regions, people needed certain items, and in the southern latitudes - completely different ones. Therefore, to create a complete picture, scientists need both types of findings. Only from the totality of all the tools found can one get the most accurate idea of ​​the life of primitive people in ancient times.

Materials for making tools

Naturally, in the Stone Age the main material for the manufacture of certain objects was stone. Of its varieties, primitive people mainly chose flint and limestone shale. They made excellent cutting tools and weapons for hunting.

In more late period people began to actively use basalt. It was used for tools intended for household needs. However, this happened already when people became interested in agriculture and cattle breeding.

At the same time, primitive man mastered the production of tools from bone, the horns of animals he killed, and wood. In various life situations they turned out to be very useful and successfully replaced the stone.

If we focus on the sequence of appearance of Stone Age tools, we can conclude that the first and main material of ancient people was stone. It was he who turned out to be the most durable and was of great value in the eyes of primitive man.

The appearance of the first tools

The first tools of the Stone Age, the sequence of which is so important for the world scientific community, were the result of accumulated knowledge and experience. This process lasted for centuries, because it was quite difficult for primitive man of the Early Paleolithic era to understand that objects collected by chance could be useful to him.

Historians believe that hominids, through the process of evolution, were able to understand the vast possibilities of stones and sticks, found by chance, to protect themselves and their communities. This made it easier to drive away wild animals and get roots. Therefore, primitive people began to pick up stones and throw them away after use.

However, after some time they realized that it was not so easy to find the desired object in nature. Sometimes it was necessary to go around fairly large areas in order to find a convenient stone suitable for collecting in one’s hands. Such items began to be stored, and gradually the collection was replenished with convenient bones and branched sticks of the required length. All of them became peculiar prerequisites for the first tools of labor of the ancient Stone Age.

Stone Age tools: the sequence of their appearance

Among some groups of scientists, it is common to divide labor tools into the historical eras to which they belong. However, it is possible to imagine the sequence of the emergence of labor tools in a different way. Stone Age people gradually evolved, so historians gave them different names. Over many millennia, they went from Australopithecus to Cro-Magnon man. Naturally, the tools of labor also changed during these periods. If you carefully trace the development of the human individual, then in parallel you can understand how much the tools of labor have improved. Therefore, further we will talk about objects made by hand during the Paleolithic period:

• Australopithecus;
• Pithecanthropus;
• Neanderthals;
• Cro-Magnons.

If you still want to know what tools were used in the Stone Age, then the following sections of the article will reveal this secret for you.

Invention of tools

The appearance of the first objects designed to make life easier for primitive people dates back to the time of Australopithecus. These are considered the most ancient ancestors of modern humans. It was they who learned to collect the necessary stones and sticks, and then decided to try with their own hands to give the desired shape to the found object.

Australopithecus was primarily a gatherer. They constantly searched the forests for edible roots and picked berries, and therefore were often attacked by wild animals. Stones found at random, as it turned out, helped people do their usual activities more productively and even allowed them to protect themselves from animals. Therefore, ancient man attempted to transform an unsuitable stone into something useful with a few blows. After a series of titanic efforts, the first tool of labor was born - a chopper.

This item was an oblong stone. On one side it was thickened to fit more comfortably in the hand, and the other was sharpened by the ancient man by striking with another stone. It is worth noting that creating the handaxe was a very labor-intensive process. The stones were quite difficult to process, and the movements of the australopithecus were not very accurate. Scientists believe that to create one handaxe it took at least a hundred blows, and the weight of the tool often reached fifty kilograms.

With the help of a chopper it was much easier to dig up roots from under the ground and even kill wild animals with it. We can say that it was with the invention of the first tool that a new milestone began in the development of humanity as a species.

Despite the fact that the ax was the most popular tool, australopithecus learned to create scrapers and points. However, the scope of their application was the same - gathering.

Tools of Pithecanthropus

This species is already classified as an upright walker and can claim to be called a human. The labor tools of Stone Age people of this period are, unfortunately, few in number. Finds dating back to the era of Pithecanthropus are very valuable for science, because each item found carries extensive information about a little-studied historical time interval.

Scientists believe that Pithecanthropus used basically the same tools as Australopithecus, but learned to process them more skillfully. Stone axes were still very common. Flakes were also used. They were made from bone by splitting into several parts, as a result, primitive man received a product with sharp and cutting edges. Some finds allow us to get the idea that Pithecanthropus tried to make tools from wood. People also actively used eoliths. This term was used to describe stones found near bodies of water that naturally had sharp edges.

Neanderthals: new inventions

Stone Age tools (we provided a photo with a caption in this section), made by Neanderthals, are distinguished by their lightness and new forms. Gradually, people began to choose the most convenient shapes and sizes, which significantly facilitated hard daily work.

Most of the finds from that period were discovered in one of the caves in France, so scientists call all the tools of the Neanderthals Mousterian. This name was given in honor of the cave where large-scale excavations were carried out.

A distinctive feature of these items is their focus on the manufacture of clothing. The Ice Age in which the Neanderthals lived dictated their conditions to them. To survive, they had to learn how to process animal skins and sew various clothes from them. Among the tools of labor appeared piercings, needles and awls. With their help, skins could be joined together with animal tendons. Such instruments were made from bone and most often by splitting the original material into several plates.

In general, scientists divide the finds of that period into three large groups:

• Rubiltsa;
• scraper;
• pointed points.

Rubeltsa resembled the first tools of ancient man, but were much smaller in size. They were quite common and were used in various situations, for example, for striking.

Scrapers were excellent for cutting up the carcasses of killed animals. Neanderthals skillfully separated the skin from the meat, which was then divided into small pieces. Using the same scraper, the skins were further processed; this tool was also suitable for creating various wood products.

Pointed points were often used as weapons. Neanderthals had sharp darts, spears and knives for various purposes. For all this, pointed points were needed.

Age of Cro-Magnons

This type of person is characterized by tall stature, a strong figure and a wide range of skills. The Cro-Magnons successfully put into practice all the inventions of their ancestors and came up with completely new tools.

During this period, stone tools were still extremely common, but gradually people began to appreciate other materials. They learned to make various devices from animal tusks and their horns. The main activities were gathering and hunting. Therefore, all tools contributed to facilitating these types of labor. It is noteworthy that the Cro-Magnons learned to fish, so archaeologists were able to find, in addition to the already known knives, blades, arrowheads and spears, harpoons and fishhooks made from animal tusks and bones.

Interestingly, the Cro-Magnons came up with the idea of ​​making dishes from clay and firing them in fire. It is believed that the end ice age and the Paleolithic era, which saw the heyday of the Cro-Magnon culture, was marked by significant changes in the life of primitive people.

Mesolithic

Scientists date this period from the tenth to the sixth millennium BC. During the Mesolithic, the world's oceans gradually rose, so people had to constantly adapt to unfamiliar conditions. They explored new territories and sources of food. Naturally, all this affected the tools of labor, which became more advanced and convenient.

During the Mesolithic era, archaeologists found microliths everywhere. This term must be understood as small-sized stone tools. They significantly facilitated the work of ancient people and allowed them to create skillful products.

It is believed that it was during this period that people first began to domesticate wild animals. For example, dogs became faithful companions of hunters and guards in large settlements.

Neolithic

This is the final stage of the Stone Age, in which people mastered agriculture, cattle breeding and continued to develop pottery skills. Such a sharp leap in human development noticeably modified stone tools. They acquired a clear focus and began to be manufactured only for a particular industry. For example, stone plows were used to cultivate the land before planting, and the harvest was harvested with special harvesting tools with cutting edges. Other tools made it possible to finely chop plants and prepare food from them.

It is noteworthy that during the Neolithic era entire settlements were built from stone. Sometimes houses and all objects inside them were entirely carved from stone. Such villages were very common in the territory of modern Scotland.

In general, by the end of the Paleolithic era, man had successfully mastered the technique of making tools from stone and other materials. This period became a solid foundation for further development human civilization. However, to this day, ancient stones keep many secrets that attract modern adventurers from all over the world.

TOOLS

TOOLS

part of the means of production with the help or through which a person influences objects, objects of labor. The term “tools of labor” was widely used in Marxist political economy, but is rarely used in modern economics.

Raizberg B.A., Lozovsky L.Sh., Starodubtseva E.B.. Modern economic dictionary. - 2nd ed., rev. M.: INFRA-M. 479 pp.. 1999 .

Economic dictionary. 2000 .

See what "tools of labor" are in other dictionaries:

The means of production through which a person acts and processes objects of labor. Dictionary of business terms. Akademik.ru. 2001... Dictionary of business terms

TOOLS- the most important part of the means of production, through which a direct impact on the subject of labor is carried out ... Russian encyclopedia of labor protection

Tools of labor are the main part of the means of production. Includes tools, machines, devices, engines, etc., with the help of which objects of labor are processed and products are manufactured during the production process. Tools of labor in antiquity Already Lucretius... ... Wikipedia

TOOLS- part of the means of production with the help or through which a person influences objects, objects of labor. The term tools of labor is widely used in Marxist political economy; in modern economics it is used... ... Large economic dictionary

tools- part of the means of production with the help or through which a person influences objects, objects of labor. The term tools of labor was widely used in Marxist political economy; in modern economics it is used... ... Dictionary of economic terms

The main part of the means of production (See Means of production). Includes machines, instruments, engines, etc., with the help of which objects of labor are processed and products are manufactured during the production process. O. t. is the most important component... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Part of the means of production with which or by means of which a person acts on objects of labor. Term O.t. was widely used in Marxist political economy, but is used quite rarely in modern economics... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Economics and Law

TOOLS- – the main part of the means of production, i.e. machines, equipment that are directly involved in the production process... Brief dictionary economist

OLDOWAY TOOLS, a type of stone tools dating from the end of the PLEISTOCENE (about 2 million years ago). The name comes from the Oldowai Gorge in northern Tanzania, where archaeologists first found tools of this type. Made from quartz or... Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary

I. WEAPONS According to the method of use, weapons for self-defense (defensive) and weapons for defeating the enemy (offensive) are distinguished. 1) a) Among the defense. O. first of all it should be called SHIELD. In early antiquity it was almost always made of wood and... ... Brockhaus Biblical Encyclopedia

Books

• Battleships of the British Empire. Part 3. Rams and monster guns, O. Parks. The third part of the fundamental work of the British naval historian Dr. Oscar Parkes tells about the formation and brief heyday of the type of “true battleships” in the late 70s -…
• Card index of subject pictures Issue 15 Tools Tools, Nishcheva N.. "Card index of subject pictures. Visual didactic material. Issue 15. Tools. Tools". The manual includes visual didactic material necessary for almost everyone...

1. Works...

   (“Works…”)
   collections of scientific articles published by research institutes, universities, academies and other scientific institutions, as well as scientific societies. "T.

2. work

   Tall (Nadson).
   Oppressive (Berg, Drozhzhin).
   Gorky (Baltrushaitis).
   Life-giving (I. Aksakov).
   Peaceful (Bashkin).
   Much-concerned (Fedorov-Davydov).
   Tense (Serafimovich).
   Unbearable (Nekrasov).
   Vigilant (Surikov).

   Dictionary of literary epithets
3. labor...

   TRUDO... First part difficult words. Introduces value words: work(1 digit), labor. Labor costs, labor use, employment.
   

   Dictionary Kuznetsova
4. work

   WORK- LAZINESS
   Hard worker - lazy person (see)
   hardworking - lazy (see)
   hardworking - lazy
   hard work - laziness (see)
   work- to be lazy (see)
   All our poets... sing of delight or torment
   love, the smile of spring or the cruelty of winter, joy labor or the charm of laziness, the greatness of our monarchs
   or the charm of our shepherdesses. Karamzin. Letter to the Spectator about Russian literature.
   Work feeds a man
   and laziness spoils. Proverb.
   Who labor he is not afraid, laziness avoids him. Proverb.
   Celebration of life

   Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language
5. Work

   can be divided into the following groups: work with significant muscle effort; mechanized
   species labor; work on automated lines; group (conveyor) work; work, related
   with remote control; various types of intellectual labor.
   Work, requiring significant
   muscle effort (heavy physical work), causes a high level of energy consumption: from 17 to 25 MJ (4000
   6000 kcal) or more per day (lumberjacks, loaders). Mechanized work ( work moderate severity

   Medical encyclopedia
6. work

   result of the work.
   About useful, joyful, significant results labor.
   Active, selfless
   exhausting, aimless labor.
   Hellish (colloquial), hopeless (obsolete), joyless, inconsolable, fruitless

   Dictionary of Russian language epithets
7. without difficulty

   without labor adv. circumstances quality
   Without any effort; without straining, easily.
   || opposite With labor
   

   Explanatory Dictionary by Efremova
8. WORK

   Conscious, energy-consuming, generally recognized as expedient activity of a person, people, requiring the application of effort, the implementation of work; one of the four main factors of production.

   Economic dictionary of terms
9. work

   work
   I m.
   1. Purposeful human activity, work that requires mental or physical

   Explanatory Dictionary by Efremova
10. work

    Cm. work
    

    Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary
11. toil

    1. toil, I'm working, we work hard, you work hard, work hard, works, work hard, working hard, worked hard, worked hard, worked hard worked hard, Trudy, work hard, laboring, laboring, laboring, laboring, laboring, laboring, laboring, laboring laboring, laboring, laborious, hardworking, hardworking, those who worked, hard worker, hardworking, hard worker workers, to the hard worker, hardworking, to the hard worker, to those who worked, laborious, hardworking, hardworking, those who worked hard worker, hardworking, hardworking, workers, to those who worked, hardworking, hardworking, to those who worked, hard workers

    Zaliznyak's Grammar Dictionary
12. work...

    (neol.). Abbreviation, used. in new complex words in meaning. labor, for example labor contract, labor discipline, labor school, labor service, labor collective.

    Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary
13. Proceedings

    M., 1826, 8°, part 3; Parts 1 and 2 were published under the title "Notes and works", etc. (M., 1815 and 1824
    further went under the title. " Proceedings and Chronicles of the Society" etc. part 3. book 2, 1827; part 4 - 1828; part 5
    statistical description of nine districts of Minsk province. 13) Proceedings Societies for promoting Russian
    A. Naranovich. Then the publication changed its name " Proceedings" to "Minutes of meetings General. Russian doctors
    for recent years publications " Proceedings"were: N. G. Ershov (until 1887), V. I. Filipev (until 1890

    Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron
14. work

    noun " work" in combination with various adjectives, for example: "watery work"-"dropsy", "puerpera"
    V labor" - "in childbirth", " work- “long-term, protracted illness.”
    Related are:
    Czech, Polish – trud.
    Derivatives: difficult, difficult, hard worker.
    

    Etymological dictionary Semyonova
15. toil

    C h e m (us t a r.) and w h a t t o (p r o s t.).
    1. h e m (to burden labor; bother with smb.). - Eh
    how do you like us you work hard work,” said Isaev (Garin-Mikhailovsky). Even before, mother, we wanted
    you toil this [relocation] (Grigorovich).
    2. what (to tire). Sophia, put down your work, don't Trudy eyes (Dostoevsky).
    

    Management in Russian
16. work

    see >> business, book, work
    see also -> vain work, nest, works, worries, with labor
    

    Abramov's dictionary of synonyms
17. work

    Work, disease, illness; doing something with diligence, suffering, torment.
    

    Concise Church Slavonic Dictionary
18. Work

    I
    purposeful human activity, during which he uses tools labor affects
    is nothing more than human education labor.
    T. how purposeful human activity began
    complex (see also Separation labor, Simple work, Difficult work). The simplest and mandatory
    for work”, that is, as if the entire labor supply of the worker is fully paid for by the capitalist. Forms and systems
    owner of the means of production - capitalist (see also Productive work).
    In the conditions of commodity

    Great Soviet Encyclopedia
19. work

    orf.
    work, -A
    

    Lopatin's spelling dictionary
20. WORK

    WORK– purposeful human activity, considered 1) from the point of view of human exchange
    with nature - in this case, in labor man with tools labor influences nature and uses
    form of activity. Work is “...the eternal natural condition of human life
    "(Marx K., Engels F. Soch., vol. 23, p. 195).
    Work played a decisive role in the formation process
    his perceptions and ideas. As a worthwhile activity work began with the manufacture of tools

    New philosophical encyclopedia
21. toil

    I'm working, you work hard; nesov., pereh. outdated
    1. (make trouble for owls).
    burden ( labor, work).
    - Eh
    how do you like us you work hard work! - said Isaev. - You are good to everyone: you are sorry, and you care, and you give money for vodka.
    work, not Trudy eyes. Dostoevsky, Teenager.
    Don’t go, granddaughter, Krutoyar. Not Trudy you little legs
    If this is your honor, you’d better move us. --- Even before, mother, we wanted you toil this. Grigorovich, Migrants.
    

    Small academic dictionary
22. work

    I
    I, b. p. -a, difficult, toil, Ukrainian. work, other Russian labor " work, work, zeal, care
    suffering, sorrow", Old Slavic labor πόνος, ἀγών (Supr.), Bulgarian. work, Serbohorvian labor, birth n

    Etymological Dictionary of Max Vasmer
23. work

    work nesov. nepereh.
    1. Do something labor work 1., business, spend time at work.
    2. Make an effort to try to do something.
    

    Explanatory Dictionary by Efremova
24. hard...

    trude…
    The initial part of compound words, adding meaning to the word. work, labor (employment, labor supply, occupational therapy, employment, etc.).
    

    Explanatory Dictionary by Efremova
25. works

    works pl.
    1. Name of scientific journals, collections.
    2. decomposition Services.
    3. decompression Everyday activities, chores, worries.
    

    Explanatory Dictionary by Efremova
26. without difficulty

    adverb, number of synonyms...

27. labor...

    TRUDO... The first part of complex words with the meaning: 1) relating to labor(in 1 digit), e.g. labor-intensive
    labor costs, labor use, ability to work, employment; 2) related to labor(in 2 digits), e.g. hard work, occupational therapy.
    

    Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary
28. work

    verb., nsv., used. compare often
    I'm working, you you work, he/she/it works, We we work hard
    You work hard, They are working, work hard, work hard, worked hard, worked hard, worked hard, worked hard, worker
    labored, working hard
    1. If anyone works, then this means that this person is engaged in some kind of
    business, works somewhere, usually doing hard work. Persistent, successful, fruitful work
    | Work for the benefit of something. | Work until the seventh sweat. | Work tirelessly. | Work

    Dmitriev's Explanatory Dictionary
29. not without difficulty

    With effort. I quite successfully mastered the initial course in furriery, although it was not given to me without labor(G. Zhukov. Memories and reflections).
    

30. with difficulty

    With effort; by force. She didn't speak Russian well. I didn’t read our magazines, and expressed myself with labor
    In his native language (Pushkin. Evgeniy Onegin). Aparin read from labor because the letters merged

    Phrasebook Fedorov
31. work

    see >> engage, work, try, exercise, be diligent

    Abramov's dictionary of synonyms
32. WORK

    WORK- English labour/work; German Arbeit. Purposeful human activity, in the process of cutting
    he uses tools labor influences nature and uses it to create objects
    purposeful, purposeful human activity or actual labor; 2) items labor; 3) funds labor.
    

    Sociological Dictionary
33. work

    Job.
    Physical work. Salaried work. Performance labor. Guns labor. Fee for works
    □
    [Neschastlivtsev:] I am honest, heavy labor I get my bread. A. Ostrovsky, forest.
    The day is full labor
    Panova, Seasons.
    Poetry is the same as radium mining. In grams production, per year works. Mayakovsky, Conversation
    with the financial inspector about poetry.
    || usually plural h. ( works, -ov).
    Everyday activities, chores, worries
    Women share most of their housework with men works. Pushkin, History of the village

    Small academic dictionary
34. work

    Hellish~
    huge~
    colossal~
    incredible~
    incredible~
    considerable ~
    tireless~
    inhuman ~
    huge~
    scary~
    titanic ~

    Dictionary of Russian Idioms
35. Work

    close in meaning to Russian. words "work", " work»:
    1) The Lord gave man body and spirit
    neighbor and for the glorification of God. Since the commandment work given to man by God, then we can say

    Brockhaus Biblical Encyclopedia
36. work

    Work/.
    

    Morphemic-spelling dictionary
37. worked hard

    Translator

    Dictionary of thieves' jargon
38. with difficulty

    With labor adv. circumstances quality
    1. Making efforts, overcoming difficulties; barely, barely, barely

    Explanatory Dictionary by Efremova
39. toil

    toil nesov. trans. decomposition
    1. Tire you with work.
    || To greatly strain, tire.
    2. transfer To complicate, disturb, burden with something.
    

    Explanatory Dictionary by Efremova
40. work…

    work…
    The initial part of compound words, adding meaning to the word. labor (labor colony, labor service, etc.).
    

    Explanatory Dictionary by Efremova
41. toil

    WORK, I work, you work hard, ·not sure that (·obsolete). Make it difficult with work or some activity
    bother with something. "There's no use in head toil." Nekrasov.
    

    Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary
42. work

    WORK, I work, you work, ·non-over.
    1. Do something labor, spend time
    V labor. “Lenin, our great teacher, said: “Whoever does not works, he doesn’t eat.” Stalin: “Socialism demands
    not loafing, but so that all people worked hard Honestly, worked hard not on others, not on rich people
    and exploiters, but on ourselves, on society.” Stalin. Tirelessly work. « Worked hard so peasant
    my, that the sweat rolled off him like a hail.” Krylov. "Man, working hard, doesn’t think it will strain his strength.” Nekrasov.
    2

    Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary
43. work

    WORK, a, m.
    
    production of material and spiritual values. Mental t. Physical t. Scientific organization labor
    Performance labor. Right to T. People labor(workers; high). Social division labor
    Security labor.
    2. Work, occupation. Heavy t. Daytime works. Pay for works.
    3. Effort
    aimed at achieving something. Take upon yourself t. do something. Didn't give myself labor think (didn't want to

    Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary
44. labor man

    noun, number of synonyms: 1 worker 38

    Dictionary of Russian synonyms
45. laborious

    adj., number of synonyms: 8 bothered 51 made it difficult 25 tormented with work 1 burdened 20 tormented 16 tired 48 made difficult 8 bothered 13

    Dictionary of Russian synonyms
46. hard...

    The first component of compound words, corresponding in meaning to the words work(in 1 digit), labor

    Small academic dictionary
47. work

    WORK-A; m.
    1. Purposeful human activity aimed at creating with the help of tools
    production of material and spiritual values. Mental T. Physical T. Performance labor
    Products labor. Scientific organization labor. Social division labor. Security labor. Exchange labor
    People labor(high; workers).
    2. Work, occupation. Heavy, intense t. Literary
    writer's t. Convict, backbreaking t. Pay for t. Fruits labor. Live your own labor. Put a lot labor

    Kuznetsov's Explanatory Dictionary
48. WORK

    WORK- expedient human activity aimed at preserving, modifying
    adaptation of the environment to meet their needs for the production of goods and services. Work
    separation labor, its tools and means. The following applied disciplines are distinguished that study work: physiology
    labor, psychology labor, organization labor, security labor etc.
    

    Large encyclopedic dictionary

1. work

   Husband. 1) only units. labour, work; (heavy, monotonous) toil to live your own labor- to live by one's
   own labor heavy work- hard work, backbreaking work surplus work- surplus labor polytekon
   slave work- slave labor forced work- forced labor, involuntary mental servitude
   work- mental/brain work physical work- manual labor creative work- creative labor
   creative work- constructive labor socially beneficial work- socially useful work productive work

2. work

   essay) obra f, trabalho m
   - literary works
   
   - Sisyphus work
   - without labor you can't even pull a fish out of the pond
   

   Russian-Portuguese dictionary
3. work

   1. pracować;
   2. fatygować się, trudzić się;

   Russian-Polish dictionary
4. work

   Over what
   dolgozni-ik vmin
   faradni

   Russian-Hungarian dictionary
5. with difficulty

   somehow, with labor
   barely
   

   Russian-Bulgarian dictionary
6. without difficulty

   Without labor
   עַל נְקַלָה; נָקֵל, בְּנָקֵל; בְּקַלוּת
   

   Russian-Hebrew dictionary
7. work

   nesov.
   
   work
   empollar vi (to pore)
   
   
   work sweat - sudar la

   Russian-Spanish dictionary
8. Work Russian-Dutch dictionary
9. work

   Çalışmaq, işlemek

   Russian-Crimean Tatar dictionary
10. work

    Argo
    melo
    troubles
    faradság
    troubles
    vesződseg
    munka

    Russian-Hungarian dictionary
11. work on

    Faradozni -ik ​​vmin

    Russian-Hungarian dictionary
12. work

    Work
    - fanya kazi;
    to work hard - -toa jasho;
    one who works selflessly - mchapa kazi (wa-), mtoka jasho (wa-);
    work persistently, persistently - -vuma;
    to work with zeal - -idilika, -chapa kazi

    Russian-Swahili dictionary
13. work

    aa= (work) عمل
    aa= (trace) أثر
    aua = (provisions) مؤونة

    Russian-Arabic dictionary
14. work

    nesov.
    1) trabajar vi; afanarse, bregar vi (persistently)
    work over something - trabajar en algo
    empollar vi (to pore)
    2) decomposition (to make trouble for oneself) molestarse
    
    work sweat - sudar la

    Large Russian-Spanish Dictionary
15. with difficulty

    Krušně
    sotva
    stěži
    ztuha
    ztěžka

    Russian-Czech dictionary
16. work hard Russian-Czech dictionary
17. work

    Husband. pratsa, physical and mental work- physical and mental activity creative work- creative
    praca socially necessary work- gramadska neabhodnaya praca collective work- kalektyўnaya praca
    abstract work eq. - abstract concrete work eq. - concrete praca materialized work
    eq. - arechaulenaya praca civilian work- civilian labor division labor- puzzling people
    labor- people's anthem labor- anthem of practice conditions labor- smart guys turbos, clopats

    Russian-Belarusian dictionary
18. toil

    Work, dry, toil head - dry (work) galava toil legs - laboring legs
    

    Russian-Belarusian dictionary
19. work

    Nesov. 1. işləmək, zəhmət çəkmək, əmək sərf etmək; 2. çalışmaq, əlləşmək.

    Russian-Azerbaijani dictionary
20. work

    Work
    עָמַל [לַעֲמוֹל, עָמֵל, יַעֲמוֹל] ; עָבַד [לַעֲבוֹד, עוֹבֵד, יַעֲבוֹד] ; יָגַע [-, יָגֵעַ, יִיגַע]
    

    Russian-Hebrew dictionary
21. work

    Knoga, arbeta, streta

    Russian-Swedish dictionary
22. labors

    N see also works
    

    Complete Russian-English dictionary
23. work

    m.
    1) (work) Arbeit f
    physical work-physics Arbeit
    mental work- geistige
    Arbeit
    each labor- jedem nach seiner Leistung
    2) (effort) Mühe f
    without labor- muhelos
    With labor- mühsam, mit Mühe
    not worth it labor- es ist nicht der Mühe wert
    3) (work) Werk n, Arbeit f
    collective [joint] work- Gemeinschaftsarbeit f
    4) plural h.
    works(scientific publications) - Schriften

    Russian-German dictionary

Tools of labor of primitive man

2.5 million - 1.5 million years BC e.

The basis of human formation is labor. Hands free from locomotor functions could use objects found in natural conditions - in nature - as tools. Although the use of a number of objects as means of labor is characteristic in embryonic form of some species of animals, a specific feature of man is that he not only uses found objects as tools, but creates these tools himself. Along with the development of the brain and vision, this characteristic feature human creation creates the basic prerequisites for the formation of the human labor process and the development of technology.

Technical progress and the culture of mankind are now manifested not in randomly made primitive tools, but in the target orientation in their manufacture, in the similarity of examples of their processing, in the preservation or improvement of their forms, which presupposes knowledge of the characteristics of the raw materials and processed material and the experience accumulated over a certain time and skills passed on to future generations. All this had a huge impact on the development of the brain. Apparently, Australopithecus began to purposefully process wood and other materials.

The oldest primitive stone tools made from pebbles, made from similar patterns and processed in a similar way, were found with the remains of fossil hominids. The creator of these tools is considered to be a “skilled man” - homo habilis. By hunting animals they obtained not only food, but also skins, bones, tusks and horns of animals, which were used to make various tools. Long animal bones and antlers were used as tools without further processing. Sometimes they were only broken and split.

2.5 million – 600 thousand years BC e.

One of the prerequisites for labor and the production of standardized tools was the emergence and development of primitive speech. The results of modern research do not provide any basis for determining when speech arose. Apparently, a person of the modern type - homo sapiens, who appeared about 40-30 thousand years ago, had sufficiently developed speech organs.

For a very long period, until the advent of agriculture, people obtained their food in two ways - collecting fruits, plants, gifts of nature and hunting. Women and children collected fruits, seeds, roots, shellfish, eggs, insects, shells, and caught small animals. The men hunted large animals, caught fish and some types of birds. To hunt and catch animals, it was necessary to make tools. The division of labor between the sexes - between man and woman - is the first significant division of labor in the history of mankind, which, like the improvement and development of tools, is one of the most important conditions for the progress of civilization.

The production of tools from stone began - pebbles, granite, flint, slate, etc. These tools looked like a piece of stone, which, as a result of one or two chips, resulted in a sharper edge - a stone chopper. The cleaving technique was as follows: the manufacturer held the stone being processed in one hand, and in the other, a boulder, which he used to hit the stone being processed. The resulting flakes were used as scrapes. Typically, the production of stone tools processed using the cleaving technique was carried out by older people. In some areas, this technique existed for almost 2 million years, that is, until the end of the Stone Age.

Production activity during this period was made possible, despite the limited technical means, thanks to collective labor, which was facilitated by the emergence of speech. The most important role in the struggle for existence was played by the purposeful social relations of people, their courage and determination to survive the struggle against animals that were many times stronger than humans.

600 – 150 thousand years BC e.

500 thousand years BC e. Sananthropus - Peking Man - appeared in China.

200 thousand years BC e. Homo sapiens appeared in China.

The most important invention of this period was the creation of a new universal tool - a hand ax. In the beginning, hand axes were made using the chopping technique. One end was cut off on both sides, sharpening it. The opposite end of the pebble was left untreated, which made it possible to hold it in the palm of your hand. The result was a wedge-shaped weapon, with uneven zigzag edges and a pointed end. Then the working part of the weapon began to be corrected with two or three more chips, and sometimes the correction was done using a softer material, such as bone.

At the same time, along with the universal hand ax, several types of flakes appeared, which were obtained by splitting stones. These were thin flakes, flakes with sharp edges, short thick flakes. The cleaving technique spread during the Lower Paleolithic period (100 thousand - 40 thousand years BC). At sites inhabited by synanthropes, for example, in rock caves near Beijing, the remains of fires were found along with stone tools.

The use of fire is one of the most important stages in the development of mankind. The production and use of fire made it possible to expand the possibilities of human settlement and existence, and created opportunities for diversifying human nutrition and cooking. Fire provided new ways of defense against predators. And nowadays fire is the basis for many branches of technology. In ancient times, people made fire only as a result natural phenomena- from fires, lightning, etc. The fire was kept in fire pits and constantly maintained.

Long wooden spears with burnt hard tips appear. The hunters who invented such spears also used hand axes when hunting animals.

150 – 40 thousand years BC e.

Neanderthals, and perhaps also some other ancestors of the human race, mastered the art of making fire during the Upper Paleolithic period. It is difficult to accurately determine the date of this great invention, which determined the further development of human history.

Initially, fire was obtained by rubbing wooden objects, but soon fire began to be obtained by carving, when a spark appeared when a stone hit a stone. There are other opinions regarding the original methods of making fire - at first fire was obtained by carving, and later by friction. In a later period, a bow-type device was used to make fire by friction. Having learned to make fire, man began to consume boiled meat, which affected his biological development. However, the fire could not save the person from the onset of cold weather. To survive, people began to build houses.

At this time, changes occurred in the methods and techniques of processing stone tools. They began to be made from flakes obtained by chipping from a stone nodule - a core (nucleus). The flint core was pre-processed. Round chips were used to give it a certain shape, the surface was leveled with smaller chips, after which plates were chipped from the core, from which points and scrapers were made. The blades were more elongated than the flakes, shaped and of a thinner cross-section; One side of the plate after chopping was smooth, and the other side was subjected to additional processing - finer beating.

Axes, chisels, drills and thin knife-shaped plates were made from stone cores. Animals were caught using specially dug holes. The organization of the team improves when expanding pasture farming and when hunting animals. As a rule, the hunt was of a driven-raid nature.

For dwellings, caves, rock terraces, primitive dugouts and buildings were used, the foundations of which went deep into the ground. Neanderthals conquered quite wide areas. Their traces were found in the North, in particular in the West Siberian Lowland, in Transbaikalia, and in the valley of the middle Lena. This became possible after man learned to make and use fire. At this time, natural conditions also change, affecting a person’s lifestyle. For a long time, until the advent of metals, tools were made mainly of stone, hence the names Old Stone Age (Paleolithic), Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic) and New Stone Age (Neolithic). The Paleolithic, in turn, is divided into lower (early) and upper (late). After the Ice Age, a new geological era begins - the Holocene. The climate is getting warmer.

The development of cold regions involves new changes in human clothing. It began to be made from the skins of killed animals. Already during the Lower Paleolithic period, many tools were made from the bones and horns of animals, the processing of which became more advanced. Objects made from bones were twisted, cut, hewn, split, and polished.

40 thousand - 12 thousand years BC e.

The formation of the modern type of man has ended. His remains are found along with objects and tools that indicate the emergence of technology during the Lower Paleolithic period. Human settlements are spreading over a large area of ​​the globe. This became possible thanks to the improvement of his experience, knowledge, and the development of technology, which allowed man to adapt to different climatic conditions.

Stone plates and blades made using percussion technology appear. Thin-section plates were subjected to secondary processing using bone tools - retouchers. Retouchers are tools for touching up other tools and are the first tools in history to create other tools.

Various types of anvils were used as cores when retouching items. Universal axes are being replaced by specialized tools that were made using the chopping technique. In this case, narrow plates are cut off from the small core - blanks, which are subsequently subjected to secondary processing.

Primitive stone skins, axes, chisels, saws, scrapers, cutters, drills and many other tools are made. In the Paleolithic and especially in the Neolithic, the technique of drilling using stone drills originated and developed. At first, they simply scraped out the holes. Then they began to tie the stone drill to the shaft and rotate it with both hands. Inserted tools appeared: stone or flint plates were connected to a wooden or bone handle. With the help of improved tools, the production of wooden, bone and horn objects and tools is significantly expanding: awls, needles with holes, fishing rods, shovels, harpoons, etc. In Georgia, in the paleolithic cave of Sagvardzhile, Turitella shells were found, which served as decoration and had holes obtained by sawing and scratching. On the islands of Melanesia, primitive tribes, in order to make a hole, first heated a flat stone, and then dropped drops of cold water into the same place from time to time, thereby causing microscopic chips, which, as a result of repeated repetition, led to the formation of a depression and even a hole.

In France, in Aurignac, the first bone needles were found at sites of the Upper Paleolithic period. Their age is attributed to approximately 28–24 millennium BC. e. They easily pierced skins, and instead of threads, plant fibers or animal tendons were used.

They are beginning to use improved insert drills, which were used to modify the gun. For example, insert tools were clamped and rotated between the palms. Then they began to use bow drilling (the bow string was wrapped around the shaft and the bow was moved away from you and towards you, with the other hand you held the shaft and pressed it against the workpiece), which turned out to be much more productive than manual drilling.

The technique of building dugouts is being improved, hut-type dwellings are being built, the bases of which go deep into the ground. The huts were reinforced with bones or fangs of large animals, which were also used to line the walls and ceilings. Huts with low clay walls and walls woven from branches and reinforced with poles or stakes appear. Liquid food products are heated and boiled in natural stone depressions, where hot stones are thrown for heating.

Clothing is made from animal skins. However, the leather is processed more carefully; individual skins are sewn together with animal tendons or thin leather straps. Leather processing technology is quite complex. The processing process is labor-intensive and includes chemical methods in which the skin is soaked in a salt solution, then fat and bark juice are rubbed into the flesh. various types trees.

A man trains a dog to hunt an animal.

Sleighs were invented for land transportation of goods and for movement. By the end of this period, some types of raw materials are already transferred over long distances, for example, Armenian obsidian (volcanic glass), from which cutting and stabbing tools and other tools were made, is transported almost 400 km.

The first boats and rafts were made from a whole piece of wood for fishing. Fish are caught with fishing rods and harpoons, and nets appear.

Roofs made of brushwood are woven to cover the top of buildings. Making baskets is the beginning of the weaving technique.

Some archaeologists believe that the beginning of pottery was laid by the fact that woven baskets were coated with clay and then fired over a fire. Pottery and the production of ceramic products played a very important role in the history of technology, especially during the birth of metallurgy.

Examples of the beginning of ceramic production are clay figurines fired over fire.

Living in caves contributed to the emergence of lighting technology. The most ancient lamps were splinters, torches and primitive oil burners. From the Lower Paleolithic period, bowls made of sandstone or granite have been preserved, which were used as burners.

Along with household items, jewelry began to be made: beads from coral and various teeth with holes in the middle, objects carved from bone and horns, and the first religious objects appeared. The first figurines of women, animals, ritual sculptures, and drawings, often beautifully executed, were found in the caves. It is also of interest to produce paints that have not changed their colors for tens of thousands of years.

During the Lower Paleolithic period, a new weapon was used to hunt animals and for self-defense - the spear thrower. The use of a spear thrower is an example of the use of leverage, which increases the speed and distance of a spear's flight.

The bow with a string, which hits a target at a great distance, is the pinnacle of invention at the end of this period. The bow as a weapon was successfully used for many millennia, right up to our era. Some researchers believe that the bow was invented approximately 12 thousand years ago, but arrowheads found during excavations indicate that they were made in an earlier period. The bow made it possible to successfully hunt animals, which, according to some scientists, led to the complete destruction of many species of animals and forced hunters to look for new opportunities for existence, that is, to switch to agriculture.

Fire is produced using a bow-type device.

Towards the end of the Lower Paleolithic period, the first mines were laid for the underground extraction of raw materials, primarily flint, slate, and later limestone, from which jewelry was made. In some areas, on the territory of the initial surface mining, holes are deepened, shafts are dug, adits are diverted from them, and stairs are built. This is how a new branch of production arises - mining. Raw materials were obtained by a primitive method of cutting down rock in mines and by chipping or sawing off layers of rock.

12 - 10 thousand BC e.

At the end of the Ice Age, as well as during the Holocene era, many species of large animals, such as the mammoth, musk ox, and woolly rhinoceros, became extinct. As a result, hunters began to specialize in catching a specific animal. Some groups of hunters hunt reindeer, others hunt gazelles, fallow deer, bezoar goats, etc. Herds of wild animals, near which hunters settled, represented a kind of natural reserve of food and meat. The proximity of settlements to natural pastures allowed hunters to catch wild animals and keep them near their homes. This is how the process of domestication of animals occurs, primarily sheep and goats. Gradually, conditions for the emergence of pasture farming are beginning to be created.

In the countries of Western Asia, the practice of regularly harvesting wild cereals - barley, oats, and einkorn wheat - is spreading. The grains were ground in special mortars. Manual stone grain grinders and grain graters appear.

10 – 8 thousand years BC e. Beginning of the Neolithic period. Climatic conditions become similar to modern ones, glaciers are retreating. Natural conditions, especially in the mountainous regions of Western Asia, the southern part of North America, etc., are not conducive to the expansion of hunting, creating the preconditions for the emergence of agriculture. In Russia, in Siberia, an abrasive tool was found, consisting of two stone bars with conical grooves, intended for making bone needles, awls or arrowheads. A workpiece was placed between the bars in the groove. Then they began to rotate it and move it in a back-and-forth motion, gradually moving it deeper into the conical hole, squeezing both halves of the bars with their hands and adding water. As a result of using such a tool, exactly identical sharp and even needles or arrowheads appeared. An ancient bone needle with a small hole drilled in it was found.

9500 BC e.

In some regions of the globe, primarily in the countries of Western Asia, the foundations of agriculture are being formed, which represents an epoch-making phenomenon in the history of mankind.

As a result of inefficient farming, only a limited number of people could count on a constant supply of food. However, with the development of agriculture and cattle breeding, man began to produce more than was necessary for his own needs - to obtain a surplus product, which allowed some people to feed themselves at the expense of the labor of others. The excess product created the prerequisites for the separation of crafts into an independent branch of production, which, first of all, created the conditions for the emergence of cities and the development of civilization. The process of establishing agriculture lasted several millennia.

Agriculture made it possible to create and store grain reserves for a long time. This helps people gradually transition to a sedentary lifestyle, build permanent homes, public buildings, allows them to organize more efficient farming, and later carry out specialization and division of labor.

Single-grain wheat began to be cultivated primarily in southern Turkey, double-grain wheat in the valley of southern Jordan, and double-row barley in northern Iraq and western Iran. Lentils spread quickly in Palestine, later peas and other crops appeared there.

The crop fields were first cultivated with poles pointed at the ends. However, tools intended for cultivating the soil were known earlier, before the advent of agriculture.

Gradually, improved tools for harvesting and reaping appeared: knives, sickles, flails, hand grain grinders with a mortar.

Simultaneously with the emergence of agriculture, the domestication of wild animals began - goats, sheep, later cattle, pigs, etc. Instead of ineffective hunting and trapping of wild animals, productive forms of farming such as livestock breeding were created.

Cattle breeding provides humans with meat and other food products, as well as clothing, raw materials for making tools, etc. Later, domestic animals are used as draft power. The question of whether agriculture or cattle breeding arose first is debated. Agriculture and cattle breeding are closely related. The domestication of wild animals apparently began in northern Syria or Anatolia (Türkiye).

During this period, insert tools spread, the base of which was made of wood or bone, and the working part was made of a set of small stone plates, called microliths. The plates were most often made from flint, obsidian or other minerals. Thus, various knives, sickle-shaped tools, cutters with a blunt back or beveled edge, axes, hammers, hoes and other tools are created. These tools were used not only by the first farmers, but also by the majority of hunters, who began to cultivate the land much later, in subsequent millennia.

With the invention and widespread introduction of insert tools, a technical revolution occurred. Flint knives, saws, and chisels were placed into a wooden or bone base and secured with bitumen. One of the first composite and complex insert weapons was the bow and arrow. By the time the onion was invented in its economic activity people used various household devices - spear throwers, traps, traps.

The invention of the bow could have been prompted by the use of various throwing devices: spears, planks for throwing darts, etc. A person observed how energy was accumulated when bending branches or young trees, and released when straightening. The most ancient simple bows were made from a single bent stick, the ends of which were tied together with a bowstring made from animal tendons. At one end of the bow the string was attached with a knot, at the other it was put on with a loop. Compared to a spear, the use of a bow and arrow made it possible to increase the speed and distance of the arrow several times. In addition, the bow, compared to other throwing weapons, had aiming quality.

The arrow was made of wood, and the tip was made of microliths. Such arrows were light and long-range. The sizes of the bows varied - from 60 cm to 2 m or more. The bow quickly found use among different tribes and peoples. The image of a simple bow is found on ancient Assyrian and Egyptian monuments. He was known to the Romans, Gauls, and Germans. The Greeks, Scythians, Sarmatians, Huns and some other peoples used a more effective complex bow, which was glued together from several parts, from different types of wood, horn or bone.

The use of bows and arrows significantly increased human productivity and greatly facilitated the life of hunting tribes. In addition, it freed up time for collecting edible plants, including cereals, taming wild animals, fishing, collecting snails and mollusks. This was important because hunting did not satisfy the need for food. The bow and arrow laid the foundation for the technical prerequisites for the transition from hunting to agriculture and cattle breeding.

Microliths were used for many tools, including knives and then sickles. Fundamentally new means of labor, which found a variety of economic applications, created the necessary technical prerequisites for the transition from hunting to agriculture and cattle breeding, that is, to a producing economy.

Sedentary farmers begin to build large residential buildings. Houses are built from twigs and coated with clay. Walls are sometimes built from separate layers of wet clay; mud bricks appear, stone buildings are erected. In some settlements of Western Asia in the 10th - 9th millennium BC. e. Up to 200 people lived there. Clay ovens were laid inside the structure and granaries were built for storing grain. A matting appears. Lime plaster is invented, which is used to coat buildings.

8 thousand years BC e.

A fortified city with about 3 thousand inhabitants was built in Jericho. The houses, round in plan, were built from mud brick. The entire city was surrounded by a wall of rubble stone with massive towers eight meters in diameter and 8 meters high. The height of the fortress walls was 4.2 meters. The walls were made of stone squares 2? 2 meters weighing several tons each. In the 8th millennium BC. e. and in subsequent millennia there were other fortresses.

Raw materials become traded items and are transported over long distances. Obsidian from Anatolia (Türkiye) is transported to cities located at distances of over 1000 km. Some sources indicate that Jericho owes its power and prosperity to the obsidian trade.

The production of household ceramics emerges. Special ceramic or pottery kilns are built for firing clay objects and dishes.

8 – 6 thousand BC e.

The Neolithic, New Stone Age received its name due to the widespread introduction of new methods of processing large stone tools. Thus, a new method of processing stone tools by grinding, drilling and sawing appears. First, the workpiece is made, then the workpiece is ground. These techniques made it possible to move on to processing new, harder types of stone: basalt, jade, jadeite and others, which began to serve as the raw material for creating stone axes, hoes, chisels, picks. Various woodworking tools, mainly pointed axes, chisels and other tools, were embedded in a wooden base.

During processing, tools are cut and sawed with stone saws without teeth. Quartz sand served as an abrasive. Dry and wet grinding was used using special stone blocks. Sometimes grinding is carried out using sanding blocks, which are given appropriate profiles. Drilling holes, primarily cylindrical ones, using tubular bones or bamboo trunks, sharpened in the shape of teeth, is common. Sand was used as an abrasive. The use of sawing, drilling, and grinding made it possible to achieve a certain shape and cleanliness of the surface of the tool. Working with ground tools reduced the resistance of the material of the object being processed, which led to an increase in labor productivity. Over time, the grinding technique reaches a high level. Polished axes were of great importance among the tribes that occupied forest areas. Without such a tool in these areas, the transition to agriculture would be very difficult.

With polished stone axes, rigidly attached to a wooden handle through drilled cylindrical holes, they began to cut down forests, hollow out boats, and build houses.

8 - 7 thousand BC e. Already early landowners became familiar with metal. In Anatolia (Turkey) and Iran, individual objects and decorations, tools made of copper by cold metal processing were discovered: piercings, beads, awls. However, this method of making tools cannot yet replace traditional technique making tools from stone. The final transition from stone tools to metal ones occurred during the period of the slave system.

7 thousand BC e.

The formation of craft production begins.

The settlement of Çatalhöyük in Anatolia was built according to a single plan. It is located near a copper ore deposit, which was developed in II BC. e. For the construction of houses, they began to produce adobe blocks - mud bricks. Their shape was elongated or oval, width 20–25 cm, length – 65–70 cm. They were sculpted from clay mixed with coarsely chopped straw. The oval shape of the brick did not allow the walls of the houses to be made strong; they often collapsed. At the same time, the house was not restored, but rebuilt on the site of the previous building. The bricks were held together with clay and adobe mortar. The floors were painted white or brown.

Rectangular houses, usually one-room, are closely adjacent to each other, the roofs are high and ribbed. Inside there was a rectangular hearth. The length of the living quarters reaches 10 m, the width - 6 m. In the city itself there are many beautifully decorated religious buildings - sanctuaries. By their nature, they differed from residential buildings only in their larger sizes.

Gradually, crafts emerge and people appear who specialize in them. First of all, the profession of a miner stands out. Developments of flint from the Neolithic period were found in France, Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and England. One of the ancient monuments mining - primitive mines for flint extraction. Large flint-working workshops were discovered in Romania, Moldova, and Ukraine.

Open-pit workings gave way to mine developments. The oldest mines were shallow. The high quality of flint and its beautiful patterned design caused great demand for it.

Remains of textile products have been found in Anatolia, which proves the existence of spinning fabric from raw materials of plant origin and weaving on looms. Patterns woven on textiles have been discovered that are reminiscent of patterns on modern Turkish carpets. The raw material for spinning was wool, then silk, cotton and flax. Spinning was carried out in various ways, for example, by twisting the fibers between the palms.

Then spinning was carried out using a spindle with a whorl and a slingshot. At one end of the spindle there was yarn, at the other there was a spindle made of stone or clay to ensure rotation. In this case, the fibers were twisted into a strong thread and wound onto a spindle. They wove on primitive handlooms with a horizontal or vertical warp. The design of the machine was very simple. Two posts were driven into the ground, on which a horizontal bolster was secured. The main threads were tied to the roller, which were pulled with weights. The weft thread was wound around a stick with a pointed end. The weaver pushed this stick with the thread with his fingers alternately above and below the warp threads. Woven fabric and woven matting were dyed. Vegetable dyes, such as moraine, were used as dyes.

In the most developed areas of Western Asia, a further division of labor occurs. Part of the population is not directly involved in food production, but is engaged in handicraft production - the manufacture of tools, tools, and household items. This division of labor between the farmer and the artisan gradually acquired significant significance for the development of technology and production, for the emergence of cities and the first state institutions.

7 - 6 thousand BC e. In Anatolia, copper was smelted from ore for the first time, as well as tin. Based on the results of studies of the preserved ash, scientists claim that the smelting temperature reached more than 1000 degrees Celsius. Experts express the opinion that copper was smelted from malachite, and brown coal was used as fuel. Over the next millennium, this method of copper metallurgy spreads to the emerging and developing cities of the Middle East.