"Candide, or Optimism" (Voltaire): description and analysis of the novel from the encyclopedia. The best philosophical story by Voltaire - “Candide Voltaire Candide Features of the Plot Construction

The pinnacle of the cycle and Voltaire’s work in general was the story “Candide, or Optimism.” The impetus for its creation was the famous Lisbon earthquake on November 1, 1755, when the flourishing city was destroyed and many people died. This event renewed the controversy surrounding the German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz's statement: "Everything is good." Voltaire himself earlier shared Leibniz's optimism, but in Candide an optimistic outlook on life becomes a sign of inexperience and social illiteracy.

Outwardly, the story is structured as a biography of the main character, a story of all kinds of disasters and misfortunes that befall Candide in his wanderings around the world. At the beginning of the story, Candide is expelled from the castle of Baron Thunder-ten-Tronck because he dared to fall in love with the baron’s daughter, the beautiful Cunegonde. He ends up as a mercenary in the Bulgarian army, where he is driven through the ranks thirty-six times and only manages to escape during a battle in which thirty thousand souls were killed; then he survives a storm, a shipwreck and an earthquake in Lisbon, where he falls into the hands of the Inquisition and almost dies at an auto-da-fé. In Lisbon, the hero meets the beautiful Cunegonde, who also suffered many misfortunes, and they go to South America, where Candide ends up in the fantastic countries of Orelion and Eldorado; through Suriname he returns to Europe, visits France, England and Italy, and his wanderings end in the vicinity of Constantinople, where he marries Cunegonde and all the characters in the story gather on the small farm he owns. Apart from Pangloss, there are no happy heroes in the story: everyone tells a chilling story of their suffering, and this abundance of grief makes the reader perceive violence and cruelty as the natural state of the world. People in it differ only in the degree of misfortune; any society is unfair, and the only happy country in the story is the non-existent Eldorado. By depicting the world as a kingdom of the absurd, Voltaire anticipates the literature of the twentieth century.

Candide (the hero's name means "sincere" in French), as it says at the beginning of the story, "is a young man whom nature has endowed with the most pleasant disposition. His whole soul was reflected in his face. He judged things quite sensibly and kind-heartedly." Candide is the model of the “natural man” of the Enlightenment, in the story he plays the role of a simpleton hero, he is a witness and victim of all the vices of society. Candide trusts people, especially his mentors, and learns from his first teacher Pangloss that there is no effect without a cause and everything is for the best in this best of worlds. Pangloss is the embodiment of Leibniz's optimism; the inconsistency and stupidity of his position is proven by every plot twist, but Pangloss is incorrigible. As befits a character in a philosophical story, he is devoid of a psychological dimension, an idea is only tested on him, and Voltaire’s satire deals with Pangloss primarily as the bearer of a false and therefore dangerous idea of ​​optimism.

Pangloss in the story is opposed by brother Martin, a pessimistic philosopher who does not believe in the existence of good in the world; he is as unshakably committed to his convictions as Pangloss, just as incapable of learning lessons from life. The only character to whom this is given is Candide, whose statements throughout the story demonstrate how little by little he gets rid of the illusions of optimism, but is not in a hurry to accept the extremes of pessimism. It is clear that in the genre of a philosophical story we cannot talk about the evolution of the hero, as the depiction of moral changes in a person is usually understood; The characters in philosophical stories are deprived of the psychological aspect, so the reader cannot empathize with them, but can only watch in a detached manner as the characters sort through different ideas. Since the heroes of Candide, deprived inner world, cannot develop their own ideas naturally, in the process of internal evolution, the author has to take care to supply them with these ideas from without. Such a final idea for Candide is the example of a Turkish elder who declares that he does not know and never knew the names of muftis and viziers: “I believe that in general people who interfere in public affairs sometimes die in the most pitiful way and that they deserve it. But I’m not at all interested in what’s going on in Constantinople; it’s enough for me that I send fruits from the garden I cultivate there for sale.” In the mouth of the same Eastern sage, Voltaire puts the glorification of work (after “Robinson” a very frequent motif in the literature of the Enlightenment, in “Candide” expressed in the most capacious, philosophical form): “Work drives away three great evils from us: boredom, vice and need.” .

The example of a happy old man suggests to Candide the final formulation of his own life position: “We must cultivate our garden.” In these famous words, Voltaire expresses the result of the development of educational thought: each person must clearly limit his field of activity, his “garden,” and work in it steadily, constantly, cheerfully, without questioning the usefulness and meaning of his activities, just like a gardener cultivating the garden day after day. Then the gardener’s work pays off in fruits. “Candide” says that human life is difficult, but bearable, one cannot give in to despair - action must replace contemplation. Goethe would later come to exactly the same conclusion in the finale of Faust.

“Candide, or Optimism” is a philosophical story by Voltaire. Written in the summer and autumn of 1758 and published in Geneva at the beginning of 1759 by Voltaire’s regular publishers, the Cramer brothers. In subsequent years, reprints appeared throughout Europe, despite attempts at censorship; The book's popularity is growing. “Candide, or Optimism” is the most famous among the so-called philosophical stories of Voltaire. In France, due to the absence of the word “story” in the language, this group of works is usually called novels. In connection with Candide, this term is sometimes used also because of its relatively large volume (compared to Voltaire’s other philosophical stories). So, F.M. Dostoevsky, through the mouth of one of his heroes, says: “This is a philosophical novel and was written to convey an idea.”

The core of each of Voltaire's philosophical stories is the proof or refutation of a certain initial philosophical idea. In Candide, the Leibnizian idea is refuted by the entire course of events and is ridiculed in the caricature of the philosopher Pangloss, whose favorite maxim “Everything is for the best in this best of worlds” is repeated at the most inopportune moments, when the heroes find themselves especially helpless in the face of triumphant evil. In the world depicted in Candide, it is evil that rules: feudal tyranny, religious fanaticism, all kinds of atrocities, slavery, poverty, etc. The only oasis of justice and prosperity - the utopian state of El Dorado - does not change this picture, but rather serves as an exception that confirms the rule, since its existence is guaranteed only by complete isolation from the rest of the world.

For all that, Voltaire’s “Candide, or Optimism,” full of skepticism, evil irony, and causticism, does not slide into pessimism thanks to its powerful carnival-ludicrous beginning. Voltaire does not feel sympathy for his heroes: no matter what misadventures may befall them, the narrative always maintains a caustic tone. In accordance with the carnival tradition of emphasizing the grotesque physical bottom, all misfortunes are usually concentrated “below the belt”: kicks in the ass, flogging, rape, cutting off the buttock, etc. The adventures of Candide, unmotivatedly throwing him into the most remote countries and pitting him against the most diverse people from monarchs to vagabonds - from top to bottom along the entire social ladder, are in the spirit of a picaresque novel. At the same time, the plot basis of the work - the love of Candide and Cunegonde, their forced separation, the hero's long wanderings in search of his beloved and the final reunion - are connected with a completely different literary tradition - courtly, which does not develop, but is parodied with the help of an elementary trick - the plot is unfolded in the real the time that all the described vicissitudes should have taken. Romance I didn’t expect this, time was motionless in it and the heroes met as young as they parted, no matter how long their path to each other was. Voltaire’s heroes reunite after many years, and if Candide himself simply turned from a naive boy into a mature man, then Cunegonde grew old during this time and lost all attractiveness. In the finale, Candide does not want to marry her at all, and does this solely out of class pride: at the beginning of the story, the baron-father did not tolerate his daughter’s affair with a commoner and kicked him out of the castle, and in the finale, the baron-brother, who had lost his castle and fortune, insists , like a parrot, about his origin and is still trying to prevent the wedding, which is no longer needed by anyone except Cunegonde herself.

The social moment gives Voltaire's Candide a deeply personal meaning. Coming from the third estate, Voltaire in his youth suffered a lot from aristocratic arrogance - accepted as a rising literary star in many houses, he could be subjected there to any insult, including beating. Therefore, Candide, who was treated kindly in the baron’s family from childhood and then expelled from the castle in disgrace, was humanly close to the author, and the ideological pathos of the story is characteristic of the mature Voltaire. Being a deist in his philosophical views, the writer perceived the evil reigning in the world and depicted in Candide, and therefore the possible opposition to it, primarily as the work of human hands. For many years, a kind of motto, without which even many of Voltaire’s personal letters could not do, was the demand: “Crush the reptile!” (read: aristocrats). After “Candide,” the hero’s much more constructive final call appears in this capacity: “We must cultivate our garden.”

FROM FRENCH LITERATURE

Homework assignment.

Lesson 37. Voltaire “Candide, or Optimism.” 1"

The Age of Enlightenment originates in England, and in the middle of the 18th century. France becomes the center of educational thought. The conventional historical end of this era is the French Revolution of 1789-1794, which picked up and tried to implement the ideology of the Enlightenment. The Enlighteners relied on the ideas of classicism - faith in the power of reason, fulfilling one's duty to the fatherland, faith in justice, in the beneficialness of work. But if the classicists still believed in the possibility of an ideal monarch (Corneille: “The happiness of the people is to serve their king”), then the enlighteners posed the question differently. Voltaire said: “The happiness of a king is to serve his people,” and Montesquieu put it even more sharply: “The people have the right to disobey a bad monarch.” The ideologists of the Enlightenment advocated the triumph of reason, enlightenment, science and demanded the establishment of a new social system - the kingdom of reason, which should be based on the Law. It was the desire to enlighten minds that gave birth to the idea of ​​​​creating the famous “ Denis Diderot(1713-1784), and its compilers were the outstanding minds of France. The most influential figures of the Enlightenment were Voltaire And Rousseau. Francois Marie Arouet(1694-1778), known throughout the world as Voltaire, was the son of a Parisian notary. He very early began to disturb the Parisian authorities with daring epigrams on influential persons. For verses denouncing the Prince Regent, he was kept in the Bastille for 11 months. But the punishment had no effect. The mature Voltaire is the first poet of France, the first playwright, and also a historian, philosopher, a great mocker, a freethinker, an irreconcilable opponent of the church. For him, the strangler of free thought was, first of all, the official Catholic Church, which Voltaire fiercely hated. His phrase “Crush the reptile!”, referring to the church, became a catchphrase. Voltaire is the ruler of thoughts, the uncrowned monarch of Europe. The crowned heads tried to win him over to their side. Louis XV hates and fears him, Pope Benedict XIV sends him a flattering message. Catherine II entered into a long correspondence with him (and after the French Revolution she prohibited the publication of his works). Frederick II, King of Prussia, showers him with favors. In the hope of implementing “enlightened absolutism,” Voltaire spent a number of years at the court of the Prussian king, but his “friendship” with the king ended with Voltaire being forced to leave Prussia. Voltaire settled in Switzerland, in Ferney, and since then this place has become a center of pilgrimage for thinking people around the world. His followers appear in all countries - Voltaireans, freethinkers who follow his ideas. Voltaire was able to return to Paris only two months before his death, and was greeted by the Parisians with extraordinary triumph. When he died, the church prohibited an official funeral ceremony, and his remains were taken from Paris at night, secretly. But the revolution paid him tribute: on July 11, 1791, Voltaire’s body was returned to the capital and buried in the Pantheon. On the hearse was inscribed: “He prepared us for freedom.” Voltaire's collected works comprise 100 volumes. Voltaire worked in a variety of genres. He uttered what became a popular saying: “All genres are good, except the boring one.” Voltaire's most daring work, complete freethinking, there was, perhaps, a poem "The Virgin of Orleans" dedicated to the national heroine of France, Joan of Arc. In drama, Voltaire transformed the principles classicism in the spirit of the new enlighteners. The brightest and most vibrant in Voltaire’s artistic heritage remain to this day his philosophical stories.

« We need to cultivate our garden.”

Candide

Questions to test home reading. 1. How do Candide and the narrator feel about Pangloss’s statement “everything is for the best”? 2.What definition of optimism “according to Pangloss” did Candide finally give? 3. Is Martin an optimist or a pessimist? 4. Has Pangloss stopped being an optimist? 5.What phrase does Voltaire end his story with and what meaning does he put into it? U. era Enlightenment originates in England, and in the middle of the 18th century. France becomes the center of educational thought. The conventional historical end of this era is the French Revolution of 1789-1794, which picked up and tried to implement the ideology of the Enlightenment. The enlighteners relied on ideas of classicism- faith in the power of reason, fulfilling one’s duty to the fatherland, faith in justice, in the beneficialness of work. But if the classicists still believed in the possibility of an ideal monarch (Corneille: “The happiness of the people is to serve their king”), then the enlighteners posed the question differently. Voltaire said: “The happiness of a king is to serve his people,” and Montesquieu put it even more sharply: “The people have the right to disobey a bad monarch.” The ideologists of the Enlightenment advocated the triumph of reason, enlightenment, science and sought to establish a new social system - the kingdom of reason, which should be based on the Law. It was the desire to enlighten minds that gave birth to the idea of ​​​​creating the famous “ Encyclopedias, or Explanatory dictionary sciences, arts and crafts", of which he was the editor-in-chief Denis Diderot(1713-1784), and its compilers were the outstanding minds of France. Therefore, the writers of the Enlightenment are often also called encyclopedists. The encyclopedia was the common brainchild of educators. Voltaire called it “the great monument of the nation.” Over three decades, from 1751 to 1780, 35 volumes were published. It was a systematic summary of the achievements of science, technology and production, all branches of knowledge of that time. Everything that existed was subjected to the judgment of reason, including royalty and the church. The appearance of the dictionary was followed by repressions and bans, but volumes of the Encyclopedia continued to be published semi-legally, and something unprecedented arose in France - public opinion. The most prominent figures of the Enlightenment were Voltaire And Rousseau.

Life and creative path Voltaire

Candide, or Optimism.Translation by F. Sologub

CANDIDE 1, OR OPTIMISM 2

Translation from the German by Dr. Ralph 3 with additions which were found in the doctor's pocket when he died at Minden 4 in the summer of God's grace 1759. U. The philosophical story “Candide, or Optimism,” written by Voltaire in 1758, was published anonymously and immediately gained popularity. Reissues followed. The authorities were seriously frightened by the “dangerous” book. In Paris and Geneva, decisions were made to remove the book from circulation and to have it symbolically burned by the executioner. Voltaire carefully concealed his authorship. But neither Voltaire's friends nor his enemies doubted who the true author of Candide was. Soon there was no need to hide, and Voltaire admitted his authorship in letters to friends. At home you should have become acquainted with fragments of the story translated by Fyodor Sologub. Now try to understand Voltaire’s position, try to understand what scared the authorities so much. Let's get started from the title. What is the meaning of the main character's name? D. He is “pure-hearted”, “sincere”, believes everything, believes his teacher. U. What does “optimism” mean? Why does Voltaire give a second title to his philosophical story? D. Optimism means the belief that everything in our world is changing for the better. Pangloss adhered to this point of view; Candide wholeheartedly believes him. Chapter one. How Candide was brought up in a beautiful castle and how he was expelled from there. In Westphalia, in the castle of Baron Tunder-ten-Tronck, there lived a young man whom nature had endowed with the most pleasant disposition. His whole soul was reflected in his face. He judged things quite sensibly and very simply; that's why I think he was called Candide. The old servants of the house suspected that he was the son of the baron's sister and a kind and honest nobleman who lived in the neighborhood, whom this girl never wanted to marry, since his pedigree included only seventy-one generations of ancestors, the rest part of his family tree was destroyed by the destructive forces of time.<…>The Baroness, his wife, weighed nearly three hundred and fifty pounds; by this she inspired the greatest respect for herself. She performed the duties of the mistress of the house with a dignity that further increased this respect. Her daughter, Cunegonde, seventeen years old, was rosy, fresh, plump, appetizing. The baron's son was worthy of his father in everything. Mentor Pangloss 1 was the oracle of the house, and little Candide listened to his lessons with all the sincerity of his age and character. Pangloss taught metaphysics-theology-cosmology 2. He wonderfully proved that there is no effect without a cause 3 and that in this best of possible worlds, the castle of the sovereign baron is the most beautiful of all possible castles, and Madam Baroness is the best of all possible baronesses. It has been proven, he said, that everything is as it should be; since everything was created in accordance with the purpose, then everything is necessary and created for the best purpose. Now, mind you, noses are made for glasses, that’s why we wear glasses. Feet are obviously meant to be put on, so we put them on. Stones were created in order to cut them and build castles from them, and now the monseigneur owns the most beautiful castle: the noblest baron of the entire region should have the best home. Pigs are made to be eaten - we eat pork all year round. Therefore, those who claim that everything is good are talking nonsense - we need to say that everything is for the better. Candide listened attentively and believed innocently: he found Cunegonde extraordinarily beautiful, although he never dared to tell her about it. He believed that, after the happiness of being born Baron Tunder-ten-Tronck, the second degree of happiness is to be Cunegonde, the third is to see her every day and the fourth is to listen to the teacher Pangloss, the greatest philosopher of that region and, therefore, of the whole earth.<…>Returning to the castle, she met Candide and blushed; Candide also blushed. She greeted him in an intermittent voice, and the embarrassed Candide answered her with something that he himself did not understand. The next day after dinner, when everyone was leaving the table, Cunegonde and Candide found themselves behind the screens. Cunegonde dropped her handkerchief, Candide picked it up, she innocently shook Candide’s hand. The young man innocently kissed the hand of the young baroness, but at the same time with liveliness, with feeling, with special tenderness; their lips met, and their eyes burned, and their knees buckled, and their hands wandered. Baron Thunder-ten-Tronck passed by the screens and, having understood the causes and consequences, threw Candide out of the castle with a good kick. Cunegonde fainted; as soon as she woke up, the Baroness slapped her in the face; and there was great confusion in the most beautiful and pleasant of all possible castles. U. The idea that everything is for the best in this best of worlds is expressed by Pangloss already in the first chapter. And Voltaire’s entire story is a test of this idea. The German philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm adhered to a similar point of view on the universe. Leibniz(1645-1716). Leibniz's views on the world were shared in his youth by Voltaire himself. So what does Pangloss claim? D. Pangloss proves that he lives in the best of worlds, in the best of castles, that the baroness is the best possible baroness, that “everything is for the best.” And how does Candide himself feel about these thoughts? D. He “believed him innocently.” U. How does RP feel about this? D. Ironically: he laughs at the idea. And this is clear from the evidence that Pangloss cites: “noses are made for glasses, that’s why we wear glasses.” U. And now, after well-known events, Candide is expelled “from earthly paradise”, he is faced with real world and the entire subsequent plot is aimed at testing Pangloss’s optimistic worldview with life. Chapter three.How Candide escaped from the Bulgarians, and what happened as a result. What could be more beautiful, more agile, more magnificent and more harmonious than two armies! Trumpets, pipes, oboes, drums, cannons created music so harmonious that it does not happen in hell. The guns first killed about six thousand people on each side; then a gun battle rid the best of worlds of either nine or ten thousand idlers who desecrated its surface. The bayonet was also a sufficient cause of death for several thousand people. The total number reached thirty thousand souls. Candide, trembling with fear, like a true philosopher, diligently hid during this heroic massacre. Finally, when both kings ordered the singing of “Te Deum” 1, each in his own camp, Candide decided that it was better for him to leave and talk about effects and causes in some other place. Stepping on the dead and dying lying everywhere, he reached the neighboring village; it was reduced to ashes. The Bulgarians burned this Avar village in accordance with the laws of public law. Here the old men, crippled by the blows, watched their wounded wives die, clutching their children to their bloody breasts; there, girls with their bellies torn open, having satisfied the natural needs of several heroes, breathed their last; in another place, half-burned people begged to be finished off. Brains were scattered across the ground, strewn with severed arms and legs. Candide quickly ran away to another village; it was a Bulgarian village, and the Avar heroes did the same to it. Walking all the time among the writhing bodies or making his way through the ruins, Candide finally left the theater of war, keeping some provisions in his bag and constantly remembering Cunegonde.<…>When he came to Holland, his supplies were exhausted, but he heard that everyone in this country was rich and pious, and had no doubt that he would be treated no worse than in the baron's castle before he was expelled from there because of the beautiful Cunegonde's eye.<…>Then he turned to the man who had just been speaking for an hour in a large meeting about mercy. This preacher 3 looked askance at him and said: “Why did you come here?” Do you have a good reason for this? “There is no effect without a cause,” Candide answered modestly. “Everything is connected by a chain of necessity and arranged for the better.” It was necessary for me to be separated from Cunegonde and expelled, for me to go through the gauntlet and now beg for bread, waiting until I could earn it; all this could not be otherwise. “My friend,” the preacher said to him, “do you believe that the Pope is the Antichrist?” “I haven’t heard anything about this,” answered Candide, “but whether he is the Antichrist or not, I have no bread.” - You are not worthy to eat it! - said the preacher. - Get out, you slacker, get out, you damned one, and never bother me again.<…>A man who was not baptized, a kind-hearted Anabaptist 1 named Jacob, saw how cruelly and shamefully one of his brothers, a two-legged creature without feathers, who had a soul, was treated; he brought him to his place, cleaned him up, fed him bread, gave him beer, gave him two florins and even wanted to employ him in his factory of Persian fabrics, which are made in Holland. Candide, bowing low to him, exclaimed: “Teacher Pangloss rightly said that everything is for the best in this world, because I am immeasurably more touched by your extraordinary generosity than by the rudeness of the gentleman in a black robe and his wife.”<…> U. First, Candide, against his will, falls into the Bulgarian army and is forced to participate in the battle between the Bulgarians and Avars, which is described in this chapter. Who does Voltaire mean by Bulgarians and Avars? D. The Bulgarians are Prussians, and the Avars are French. He is referring to the seven year war between them. U. So what? What is the attitude of the RP towards the belligerents? D. He angrily ridicules them: “What could be more beautiful...” But in fact, there is nothing beautiful in this - they are “idlers” killing each other and the civilian population. U. Showing horrific pictures of the reprisals of both of them against the civilian population, Voltaire clearly agrees with his narrator and does not sympathize with anyone, because “a gun battle saved the best of worlds from either nine or ten thousand idlers who desecrated its surface.” So is this world really the “best of all worlds”? D. Of course not. U. The second episode in this chapter is connected with Candide's stay in Holland. The hero encounters the preacher. Why does the preacher ask if Candide believes that “The Pope is the Antichrist”? D. Because the preacher is a Protestant, an opponent of Catholics and the Pope. U. And what does the behavior of the preacher and his wife indicate? How does the RP evaluate them? D.“Oh, heaven! To what extremes does religious zeal drive women! He condemns religious fanaticism. U. And who treated Candide humanely? D.“Kind-hearted” Jacob, he is also a Protestant, but belongs to the Anabaptists, those who preach freedom of conscience, that is, tolerance of other religions. U. Here Voltaire expresses his own views through his work: he himself always opposed religious fanaticism, for religious tolerance. Chapter four.How Candide met his former philosophy teacher, Doctor Pangloss, and what came of it. U. This is how Candide’s misadventures begin in this “best of worlds.” At the end of the third chapter, he meets a beggar who turns out to be Pangloss. From him he learns that Cunegonde died, tortured by the Bulgarian soldiers, that they smashed the baron's head, chopped the baroness into pieces, killed Cunegonde's brother, and Pangloss himself dies, because he contracted a bad disease from the baroness's maid. Upon learning of Cunegonde’s death, Candide exclaims: “Ah, best of all worlds, where are you?” But Pangloss, in spite of everything, continues to insist “that everything in the world is for the better.” Jacob did not share this opinion: “Of course,” he said, “people have partly distorted nature, for they are not born wolves at all, but only become them: the Lord did not give them either twenty-four-pound cannons or bayonets, but they made themselves both.” another to destroy each other. To this we can add bankruptcies and the court, which, by seizing the property of the bankrupts, deprives the creditors.” That is, through the mouth of Jacob, Voltaire expresses his idea that natural, “natural inclinations” are beautiful, and only a corrupt mind can spoil them. But Pangloss stands his ground: “All this is inevitable,” answered the crooked philosopher. “Individual misfortunes create a common good, so the more such misfortunes, the better.” Chapter five. U. And misfortunes were not slow to follow. The first of these was the earthquake in Lisbon, which actually occurred in 1755. It so happened that Jacob went to Lisbon on trade business and took both philosophers with him, after curing Pangloss. The ship was caught in a terrible storm, from which only the philosophers managed to escape, while Jacob drowned. But before they had time to come to their senses, a terrible earthquake began. Chapter six.How a beautiful autodofe was built to get rid of the earthquake, and how Candide was flogged. U.“Candide, frightened, stunned, amazed, all bloody, all trembling,” cannot understand in any way: “if this is the best of possible worlds, then why are people dying?” It should be noted that one of the external impetuses for writing “Candide” was precisely the Lisbon earthquake, because if everything is harmonious in the world, then why is nature raging, why are people dying? But the misadventures of our hero did not end there. Candide finds Cunegonde, who miraculously survived. After a series of adventures, they go to the New World, but there they part again in Buenos Aires, and Candide, together with his mestizo servant Cacambo, end up in the country of El Dorado.] Chapter seven.How the old woman took care of Quandide and how he found what he loved. Chapter eight.History of Kunigudna. Chapter Nine.About what happened to Cunegonde, to Candide, to the Grand Inquisitor and the Jew. Chapter ten.How unfortunately Candide, Cunegonde and the old woman arrived in Cadiz and how they boarded the ship. Chapter Eleven.The old woman's story. Chapter twelve.Continuation of the old woman's misadventures. Chapter thirteen.How Candide was forced to be separated from Cunegonde and the old woman. Chapter fourteen.How Candide and Cacambo were received by the Paraguayan Jesuits. Chapter fifteen.How Candide killed the brother of his dear Cunegonde. Chapter sixteen. What happened to two travelers with two girls, two monkeys and savages called Orelions. U. Candide learned that Kuningunda remained alive, but was sold, and now her owners are the merchant and the Grand Inquisitor. Candide kills both, after which he is forced to flee with the old woman and Cunegonde. On the way to the New World on a ship, an old servant woman tells her story of how she, the daughter of Pope Urban the Tenth and the Princess of Palestine, fell into captivity and eventually ended up in the service of a merchant. When the fugitives arrived in South America, it turned out that they were already looking for the killers of the Grand Inquisitor. Therefore, Candide was forced to flee along with his servant, the mestizo Cacambo, and Cunegonde went to the governor of Buenos Aires. On the way, Candide meets a German Jesuit, who turns out to be Cunegonde's surviving brother. At first the Baron and Candide rejoice at the meeting, and then the Baron learns that Candide is going to marry his sister. Indignantly, he hits Candide in the face with a sword, and he, in defense, stabs the baron. Candide runs away in despair. Chapter seventeen.The arrival of Candide and his servants in the country of Eldorado, and what they saw there. <…>The land was cultivated so as to please the eye and at the same time bear fruit; everything useful was combined with pleasant things; the roads were filled, or rather, decorated with elegant carriages made of some shiny material; men and women of rare beauty sat in them; large red rams pulled these carriages with such agility that surpassed the agility of the best horses of Andalusia, Tetouan and Meknes 1. “This,” said Candide, “is a better country than Westphalia.” He and Cacambo stopped at the first village they came across on the way. Village children in rags of gold brocade were playing with balls at the outskirts. Aliens from another part of the world looked at them with curiosity; The children's playing balls were large, rounded stones, yellow, red, green, emitting a strange shine. It occurred to the travelers to pick up several of these round pieces from the ground; these were nuggets of gold, emeralds, rubies, the least of which would have been the most precious decoration of the Mughal throne 2 . “Without a doubt,” said Cacambo, “these are the children of the local king.” At that moment the village teacher appeared and called the children to school. “Here,” said Candide, “is the mentor of the royal family.” The little naughty boys immediately stopped playing, leaving their balls and other toys on the ground. Candide picks them up, runs after his mentor and respectfully hands them to him, explaining with signs that their royal highnesses have forgotten their gems and gold. The village teacher, smiling, threw stones on the ground, looked at Candide with great surprise and continued on his way. The travelers picked up gold, rubies and emeralds. - Where are we? - Candide cried. “The royal children must have been given a remarkably good education in this country, because they are taught to despise gold and precious stones.” Cacambo was no less surprised than Candide. At last they came to the first village house; it resembled a European palace.<…>Immediately, two young men and two girls who served at the hotel, dressed in gold dresses, with gold ribbons in their hair, invited them to sit at a common table. For dinner they served four soups, each of which was made from two parrots, a boiled condor weighing two hundred pounds, two roasted monkeys, excellent in taste; three hundred larger hummingbirds on one dish and six hundred smaller ones on the other; delicious stews, fluffy cakes, all served on rock crystal dishes. Servants and maids poured various sugar cane liqueurs for the guests. The visitors were mostly merchants and carters - all extremely polite; with refined modesty they asked Cacambo several questions and were very willing to satisfy the curiosity of the guests. When dinner was over, Cacambo and Candide decided that they would pay generously, throwing two large pieces of gold picked up on the ground onto the table of the owner; the owner and hostess of the inn burst out laughing and held their sides for a long time. Finally they calmed down. “Gentlemen,” said the hotel owner, “of course, you are foreigners, and we are not accustomed to foreigners.” Forgive us for laughing so much when you offered us stones from the highway as payment. You no doubt don't have local money, but you don't need that to dine here. All hotels set up for passing merchants are maintained at the expense of the state. You won't have a good meal here because it's a poor village, but in other places you'll be well received. Cacambo translated the innkeeper's words to Candide. Candide listened to them with the same surprise and bewilderment with which his friend Cacambo translated. “What, however, is this region,” they said to one another, “unknown to the rest of the world and so different in nature from Europe?” This is probably the very country where everything is fine, because such a country must exist at least somewhere. And no matter what Master Pangloss said, it often struck me that in Westphalia everything was quite bad. ? What surprises the heroes in the land where they ended up? Why did the hotel owners burst out laughing when Cacambo and Candide decided to pay for dinner in gold? Chapter Eighteen.What they saw in the country of Eldorado. < > The elder received the two foreigners, sitting on a sofa stuffed with hummingbird down, treated them to liqueurs in diamond bowls, then satisfied their curiosity in the following words: “I am one hundred and seventy-two years old, and I learned from my late father, the royal equerry, about the amazing revolutions in Peru, which he witnessed. Our state is the ancient homeland of the Incas, who acted very unwisely when they set out to conquer other lands: in the end they themselves were destroyed by the Spaniards 1 . Those sovereigns from this dynasty who remained in their homeland were much more prudent; with popular consent, they passed a law, following which not a single resident had the right to leave the borders of their small country; by this we preserved our simplicity and our prosperity. The Spaniards had only a vague idea of ​​our state; they called it Eldorado, and one Englishman, a certain Cavalier Raleigh 2, even approached our borders about a hundred years ago, but since we are surrounded by inaccessible rocks and precipices, until now we have had nothing to fear from the encroachments of European nations, which are in the possession of an incomprehensible passion for the dirt and stones of our land and who, in order to take possession of them, would be ready to kill every single one of us. The conversation lasted a long time: they talked about the state structure, about morals, about women, about shows, about the arts. Finally Candide, who always had a penchant for metaphysics, told Cacambo to ask if there was a religion in this country. The old man blushed slightly. - How can you doubt this? - he said. - Do you really think we are such ungrateful people? Cacambo respectfully asked what religion was in Eldorado. The old man blushed again. -Can two religions exist in the world? - he said. - We, I think, have the same religion as you; we worship God tirelessly. - Only one god? - asked Cacambo, who was constantly translating Candide’s questions. “Of course,” said the elder, “there are not two, not three, not four.” Frankly, people from your world ask very strange questions. Candide continued to question this kind old man; he wanted to know how they pray to God in Eldorado. “We don’t ask him for anything,” said the kind and respectable sage, “we have nothing to ask: he gave us everything we need; we thank him constantly. Candide was curious to see the clergy, he ordered to ask where they were. The good old man laughed. “My friends,” he said, “we are all clergy; both our sovereign and all the fathers of families solemnly sing hymns of gratitude every morning; they are accompanied by five to six thousand musicians. - How! Don't you have monks who teach everyone, quarrel with each other, rule, plot and burn dissenters? “I dare to hope that we are not crazy here,” said the elder, “we all hold the same views and do not understand what your monks are.” At these words, Candide was delighted. He said to himself: “This is not at all like in Westphalia and in the castle of Mr. Baron: if our friend Pangloss had visited Eldorado, he would no longer claim that the castle of Tunder-ten-Tronck is best place on the ground. This is how useful it is to travel!”<…>They spent a month in this hospitable country.<…> U. Finally, Candide and Cacambo find themselves in Eldorado. What kind of country is this? D. This is a legendary happy country. U. Description of the ideal state of Eldorado (from Spanish“golden, happy”) occupies an important place in the story. What kind of state is this? How are people's lives structured there? D.… Summary of the discussion. Voltaire took advantage of his utopias famous legend about the land of happiness. In Eldorado there are no monarchs, dissidents are not burned there, there are no prisons, no one is tried there, there is no tyranny and everyone is free. In El Dorado, gold is not valued, and therefore it does not bring harm to anyone. Voltaire glorified the “innocence and prosperity” of the inhabitants of Eldorado. However, praise should not be understood as an idealization of the “natural state” of people. Eldorado is a completely civilized country. There is a magnificent palace of sciences, “filled with mathematical and physical instruments.” Voltaire did not find a place for a just society in the reality around him, and the utopian Eldorado was a prototype of the future that the enlightener dreamed of. Chapter nineteen.What happened in Suriname, and how Candide met Martin. <…>On the way to the city, they saw a black man stretched out on the ground, half naked - he was wearing only blue linen trousers; the poor fellow was missing his left leg and right arm. - Oh, my God! - Candide exclaimed and addressed the black man in Dutch. - What’s wrong with you, my friend, and why are you in such a terrible state? “I’m waiting for my master, Mr. Vanderdendur, a famous merchant,” answered the black man. - So it was Mr. Vanderdendur who treated you this way? - asked Candide. “Yes, sir,” said the black man, “that’s the custom.” Twice a year they only give us these linen trousers, and that’s all our clothing. If a black man gets his finger caught in a millstone at a sugar factory, his whole hand is cut off; if he decides to run away, his leg is cut off. Both happened to me. This is the price we pay for you to have sugar in Europe. Meanwhile, when my mother sold me on the Guinea coast for ten Patagonian coins, she told me: “My dear child, bless our fetishes, always honor them, they will bring you happiness; you were honored to become the slave of our white masters and at the same time bestowed wealth on your parents.” Alas! I don’t know if I bestowed wealth on them, but I didn’t make any happiness myself. Dogs, monkeys, parrots are a thousand times happier than us; The Dutch priests who converted me tell me every Sunday that we are all descendants of Adam, white and black. I'm not good at genealogy, but if the preachers are telling the truth, we really are all related to each other. But think for yourself, is it possible to treat your own relatives so horribly? - Oh Pangloss! - exclaimed Candide. - You did not foresee these abominations. No, from now on I forever refuse your optimism. - What is optimism? - asked Cacambo. “Alas,” said Candide, “it is a passion to claim that everything is good, when in reality everything is bad.” And he burst into tears, looking at the black man; crying for him, he entered Suriname.<…> Chapter twenty.What happened to Candide and Martin at sea. U. In the end, Candide abandons Pangloss's optimism. Why? D. Because he sees only vile things in the world. U. And how does he define what “optimism” is? D.“...this is the passion to claim that everything is good when in reality everything is bad.” U. And what point of view does Martin, who reappears in the story, adhere to? D. He believes that both good and evil reign in the world, and they fight. U. But did he see good in the world? D. He thinks maybe it exists, but he hasn't seen it. U. That is, Martin adheres to the exact opposite point of view. And if Pangloss can be called an optimist, then Martin... D. Pessimist. U. Does Candide, who rejected the optimism of Pangloss, agree with Martin? D. No, he still thinks that good exists. U. But so far he has only seen good where? D. In Eldorado. U. Voltaire himself did not see good in the world around him, and it was not for nothing that he came up with an ideal country. Chapter twenty one.Candide and Martin are approaching the shores of France and will continue to reason. Chapter twenty two.What happened to Candide and Martin in France. Chapter twenty-three.What Candide and Martin saw on the English coast. Chapter twenty-four.About Packet and brother Zhirof. Chapter twenty-five.Visit to Signor Pococurante, a noble Venetian. Chapter twenty-six.About how Candide and Martin dined at six. Foreigners and who these foreigners turned out to be. Chapter twenty-seven.Candide's journey to Constantinople. Chapter twenty-eight.What happened to Candide, Cunegonde, Pangloss, Martin and others. U. Candide and Martin go to France, then to England, Venice and Constantinople. On the way, they meet Cacambo, free Pangloss and the Baron from captivity, who miraculously survived and ended up on the galleys. But Pangloss remains true to his convictions: “Well, well, my dear Pangloss,” Candide told him, “when you were hanged, cut, mercilessly beaten, when you rowed the galleys, did you really continue to believe that everything in the world is for the better?” “I have always been true to my former conviction,” answered Pangloss. “After all, I’m a philosopher, and it doesn’t become me to renounce my views; Leibniz could not be mistaken, and pre-established harmony is the most beautiful thing in the world, just like the completeness of the universe and weightless matter. Chapter twenty-nine.How Candide found Cunegonde and the old woman. Chapter Thirty.Conclusion. In the depths of his heart, Candide did not feel the slightest desire to marry Cunegonde, but the extreme impudence of the baron incited him to marry her, and Cunegonde hurried him so persistently that he could not refuse her. He consulted with Paglos, Martin and the faithful Cacambo. Pangloss wrote wonderful essay, in which he argued that the baron had no rights to his sister and that, according to all the laws of the empire, she could enter into a morganatic marriage 1 with Candide. Martin was inclined to throw the baron into the sea; Cacambo believed that it was necessary to return him to the Levantine skipper on the galleys, and then, with the first ship, send him to Rome to his father, the general. The advice was considered quite reasonable; the old woman approved of him; The baron's sister was not told anything. The plan was carried out - of course, for some bribe, and everyone rejoiced at the fact that they had fooled the Jesuit and punished the arrogant German baron. It was natural to expect that after so many disasters, Candide, having married his beloved and living with the philosopher Pangloss, the philosopher Martin, the prudent Cacambo and with the old woman, having in addition so many diamonds taken from the fatherland of the ancient Incas, should have led the most pleasant existence in the world . But he was deceived by the Jews 2 so many times that he only had a small farm left; his wife, becoming more and more ugly every day, became quarrelsome and intolerable; the old woman became decrepit, and her character was even worse than Cunegonde’s. Cacambo, who worked in the garden and went to sell vegetables in Constantinople, was exhausted under the burden of work and cursed fate. Pangloss was in despair that he would not shine at some German university. As for Martin, he was firmly convinced that everywhere was equally bad, and patiently endured the hardships of life. Candide, Martin and Pangloss sometimes argued about metaphysics and morality. They often saw ships sailing past their farm, filled with pashas, ​​effendis and qadis 3 who were exiled to Lemnos, Mytilene, Erzurum; other qadis, other pashas, ​​other effendis took the places of those expelled and, in their turn, went into exile; They sometimes saw human heads neatly stuffed with straw - they were taken as a gift to the mighty Sultan. These spectacles gave rise to new disputes<…>Martin argued that a person is born to live in spasms of anxiety or in the lethargy of boredom. Candide did not agree with anything, but he did not assert anything. Pangloss admitted that he had endured terrible torment all his life, but, once he had learned that everything was going wonderfully well, he would always adhere to this view, rejecting all other points of view. New events finally confirmed Martin in his disgusting principles, shook Candide and confused Pangloss. One day, Paqueta and brother Giroflé 4 came to their farm in the most distressed condition. They very quickly ate their three thousand piastres, separated, then made peace, quarreled again, went to prison, ran away, and finally Brother Giroflé became a Turk. Paqueta continued to practice her craft, but she no longer earned almost anything from it. “I foresaw,” Martin said to Candide, “that they would quickly squander your gifts and then become even more unhappy than they were.” You and Cacambo have squandered millions of piastres and are no happier than the brother of Giroflé and Paqueta. “Heaven itself brought you here to us, my poor child,” said Pangloss to Paqueta. - Do you know that you cost me the tip of my nose, one eye and an ear? And what shape are you in now? Oh, what a world this is in which we live! This incident gave them new food for philosophizing.<…>Pangloss, Candide and Martin, returning to their farm, saw a venerable old man enjoying the coolness at the threshold of his door under the shade of an orange tree. Pangloss, who was not only a lover of reasoning, but also a curious person, asked the elder what the name of the mufti who was strangled was. “I don’t know,” he answered, “and, frankly, I never knew the names of any viziers and muftis.” And I have no idea about the incident you are telling me about. I believe that in general people who interfere in public affairs sometimes die in the most pathetic way and that they deserve it. But I am not at all interested in what is happening in Constantinople; It’s enough for me that I send fruits from the garden I cultivate there for sale. Having said this, he invited the strangers to enter his house; his two daughters and two sons presented them with several varieties of homemade sherbet, kaymak flavored with lemon peel boiled in sugar, oranges, lemons, pineapples, dates, pistachios, Macca coffee, which was not mixed with bad coffee from Batavia and the American Islands. Then the daughters of this good Muslim perfumed the beards of Candida, Pangloss and Martin. “You must have a vast and magnificent estate?” - Candide asked the Turk. “I only have twenty arpans,” answered the Turk. - I cultivate them myself with my children; work drives away three great evils from us: boredom, vice and need. Candide, returning to the farm, thought thoughtfully about the speeches of this Turk. He said to Pangloss and Martin: “The fate of the good old man, in my opinion, is more enviable than the fate of the six kings with whom we had the honor of dining.” “High rank,” said Pangloss, “is associated with great dangers; All philosophers testify to this.<…>You know... “I also know,” said Candide, “that we need to cultivate our garden.” “You are right,” said Pangloss. - When man was settled in the Garden of Eden, it was ut operaretur eum - so that he too would work. Here is proof that man was not born for peace. “Let’s work without reasoning,” said Martin, “this is the only way to make life bearable.” The whole small society was imbued with this laudable intention; everyone began to refine their abilities. A small plot of land bore a lot of fruit. Cunegonde, it is true, was very ugly, but she baked pies excellently; I embroidered the package; The old woman took care of the linen. Even Brother Giroflé came in handy: he became a very good carpenter, moreover, an honest man, and Pangloss sometimes said to Candide: “All events are inextricably linked in the best of possible worlds.” If you had not been expelled from a beautiful castle with a healthy kick in the ass for loving Cunegonde, if you had not been taken by the Inquisition, if you had not walked all over America, if you had not pierced the baron with a sword, if you had not lost all your sheep from the glorious country Eldorado, - you wouldn’t eat either lemon peel in sugar or pistachios right now. “You said it well,” answered Candide, “but we need to cultivate our garden.” U. The last chapters tell the story of how Pangloss's test of optimism ended. And what? D. Everyone decided to follow the example of the old man, who believed that we should be content with the least and work: “work drives away three great evils from us: boredom, vice and need.” And everyone agrees with this. U. And Candide’s statement sounds twice: “We need to cultivate our garden,” which became the epigraph of our lessons. Conclusions. Voltaire denies Leibniz’s philosophy, he does not believe in “world harmony”, denies Leibniz’s optimism, which led to reconciliation with evil, as if “ necessary element world harmony." Voltaire finds harmony only in the ideal state of Eldorado, which he himself invented. But he believed in the possibility of human improvement, believed that “man was not born for rest,” that “we must cultivate our garden,” because “work drives away three great evils from us: boredom, vice and need.” U. So what scared the authorities so much and led to the decision to burn the book? Children are trying justify this decision of the authorities.1 The work is being studied in review/1 Candid - the name of the hero of the story translated from French means “since-hearted”, “sincere”.2 O p t i m i z m - lat. “best” - an attitude imbued with cheerfulness, vigor, and faith in the future. The opposite of pessimism is lat. “the worst” - a worldview imbued with despondency, hopelessness, and disbelief in the future.3 Translation from the German doctor Ralph - the story was published anonymously by Voltaire.4 Minden is a city in Westphalia; in the city fortress in the 18th century. there was a prison for state criminals1 P a n g l o s - that is, “all-language” (from Greek.).2 A mockery of the theories of Leibniz’s student, the German philosopher Christian Wulff (1679--1754).3 An allusion to Leibniz, the German philosopher (1646-1716), who wrote: “Everything in the universe is in such a connection that the present always hides in the future in its depths, and all this state explainable in a natural way only from what immediately preceded it.”1 First words thanksgiving prayer: “O Lord, we praise you...” ( lat.).2 By “Bulgarians” Voltaire means the Prussians, by “Avars” (that was the name of the Scythian tribe) - the French, and by the Bulgarian-Avar war - Seven Years' War(1756-1763), in which several European states participated, including Prussia and France. During the years of this war, “Candide” was written.3 Here is a Protestant priest.1 Anabaptist is a representative of the plebeian wing of Protestantism. The Anabaptists preached freedom of conscience and universal equality.1 Tétouan is a port city in Morocco, near the Mediterranean coast. Meknes is a large Moroccan city.2 M o g o l - the title of the legendary emperors of northern India, who allegedly possessed untold treasures.1 The Inca state reached particular power by the middle of the 15th century. In 1532, the Spanish conquerors captured the capital of the Incas, the city of Cusco, and then their entire state, destroying their rich ancient culture.2 R o lei Walter (1552-1618) - English navigator and poet; in 1595, he went to America in search of the country of Eldorado and, upon returning, told Queen Elizabeth about the miracles he allegedly saw there.1 M organatic marriage - in the feudal period, marriage between representatives of different families and classes.2 In the sense of “deceived by moneylenders.”3 Pasha is the title of senior military and civil officials in Muslim countries; effendi - here a representative of high society (a respectful form of address); kadi - judge.4 P a e t a - the baroness's maid, brother Giroflet - a monk. Candide and Martin met both of them in Venice in a very unhappy situation. Candide gave them money, believing that with money they would be happy. Martin objected that money might make them even more unhappy.

Voltaire's best philosophical story is Candide (1759). Criticism of feudal society reaches its greatest severity here. The moving intrigue (the characters constantly wander) allows Voltaire to give a wide scope of reality. True, he does not adhere to the principle of historically accurate depiction of certain phenomena. "Candide" is devoid of national and historical flavor. Without limiting himself to social and everyday details, Voltaire freely moves his heroes from one country to another.

As if in a fairy tale, as if by magic, they quickly cover vast distances. In the chaos and turmoil of life, they disperse, then meet to disperse again. The author leads them from one test to another. His thought sometimes seems too subjective. But for all the apparent arbitrariness, it has absorbed a great deal of life truth and therefore serves as a reliable guide to life. Voltaire, in general, deeply and truthfully reveals the essential aspects of reality.

The story is constructed according to the usual principle for Voltaire. A morally unspoiled person who treats people with trust faces scary world full of evil and deceit. Candide enters life knowing nothing about its inhuman laws. According to the author’s description, he was gifted “by nature with the most peaceful disposition. His physiognomy corresponded to the simplicity of his soul.” All of Candide's misfortunes are not predetermined by his character. He is a victim of circumstances and false education. Teacher Pangloss taught him to optimistically perceive any blows of fate. Candide is by no means the darling of life. Unlike Zadig, he is only an illegitimate offspring noble family. He doesn't have any wealth. At the slightest violation of the class hierarchy, caused by an awakened feeling for Cunegonde, he is expelled from the castle without any means of subsistence. Candide wanders around the world, having no other protection from injustice other than excellent health and a philosophy of optimism.

Voltaire’s hero “cannot get used to the idea that a person has no power to control his own destiny.

Forcibly recruited into the Bulgarian (Prussian) army, Candide once allowed himself the luxury of taking a walk outside the barracks. As a punishment for such self-will, he had to, Voltaire venomously notes, “make a choice in the name of God’s gift called Freedom” to either walk thirty-six times under sticks or receive twelve bullets in the forehead at once.

"Candide", like other works of Voltaire, is imbued with a feeling of ardent protest against violence against the individual. The story ridicules the “enlightened” monarchical regime of the Prussian king Frederick II, where a person can freely either die or be tortured. He has no other way. In depicting Candide's ordeal among the Bulgarians, Voltaire did not invent facts. He copied a lot simply from life, in particular, the execution of Candide. In his memoirs, Voltaire talks about the ill-fated fate of a German nobleman who, like Candide, was forcibly captured by royal recruiters because of his height and assigned to become a soldier. “The poor fellow, in company with several companions, soon afterwards escaped; he was caught and brought to the late king, to whom he declared sincerely that he repented of only one thing: that he had not killed such a tyrant like him. In response to this, they cut off his nose and ears, drove him through the gauntlet with sticks thirty-six times, and then sent him to drive a wheelbarrow to Spandau.”

Voltaire strongly condemns wars waged in the interests of the ruling circles and completely alien and incomprehensible to the people. Candide unwittingly finds himself a witness and participant in the bloody massacre. Voltaire is especially outraged by the atrocities against civilians. This is how he describes an Avar village burned “by virtue of international law”: “Mutilated old men lay here, and before their eyes their slaughtered wives were dying, with their babies flattened at their bloody breasts; girls with their bellies torn open... lay on their last legs; others, half-burnt, screamed, asking to be killed. There were brains and severed arms and legs lying on the ground.” Drawing scary picture world, Voltaire destroys the philosophy of optimism. Its guide, Pangloss, believes that “the more misfortunes, the higher the general prosperity.” The consequence of any evil, in his opinion, is good and therefore one must look to the future with hope. Pangloss's own life eloquently refutes his optimistic beliefs. When meeting him in Holland, Candide sees in front of him a tramp covered with abscesses, with a corroded nose, crooked and nasal, spitting out when he coughs after every effort on the tooth.

Voltaire wittily ridicules the church, which seeks the reasons for the imperfection of the world in the sinfulness of people. Even the occurrence of the Lisbon earthquake, which Pangloss and Candide were witnesses, she explained widespread heresy.

Cunegonde's life is a terrible indictment of the dominant social system. The theme of man's absolute insecurity, his lack of rights under feudal statehood runs like a red thread throughout the story. What kind of tests does Kunigun not pass! She is raped and forced to become the captain's mistress, who sells her to the Jew Issachar. Then she is the object of the inquisitor’s sexual desires, etc. Cunegonde is truly a toy in the hands of fate, which, however, has a very real content - these are feudal-serf relations, where the sword and the whip triumph, where everything human, based on the laws of reason, is trampled under foot. and nature. The life story of the old woman, a former beauty, the daughter of the Pope and the Princess of Palestrine, is also tragic. She confirms Voltaire’s idea that Cunegonde’s life is not an exception, but a completely typical phenomenon. In all corners of the globe, people are suffering; they are not protected from lawlessness.

The writer strives to reveal the full depth of the madness of contemporary life, in which the most incredible, fantastic cases are possible. It is here that convention, which occupies a large place in Candide and other philosophical stories, has its roots. Conditionals artistic image in Voltaire's work arose on the basis of real life. They do not contain that unhealthy, religious fantasy that was common in the literature of the 17th-18th centuries. Voltaire's conditional is a form of sharpening unusual, but quite possible life situations. The adventures of Cunegonde and the old woman seem incredible, but they are typical in a feudal society, when arbitrariness is everything, and Man, his free will, is nothing. Voltaire, unlike Rabelais and Swift, does not resort to deformation of reality. He essentially has no giants, no Lilliputians, or talking, intelligent horses. In his stories, ordinary people act. In Voltaire, convention is associated primarily with exaggeration of the unreasonable aspects of social relations. In order to emphasize the unreasonableness of life as sharply and clearly as possible, he makes his heroes experience fabulous adventures. Moreover, the blows of fate in Voltaire’s stories are experienced equally by representatives of all social strata - both crown-bearers and commoners, such as Pangloss or the poor scientist Martin.

Voltaire views life not so much from the perspective of an enslaved, disadvantaged people, but from a universal human point of view. In the 26th chapter of Candide, Voltaire gathered six former or “failed” European monarchs under the roof of a hotel in Venice. The situation, initially perceived as a carnival masquerade, gradually reveals its real outlines. For all its fabulousness, it is quite vital. The kings depicted by Voltaire really existed and, for a number of reasons, were forced to leave the throne. The convention allowed by the writer was only that he brought all the unlucky rulers into one place in order to emphasize, in close-up, with the utmost concentration of thought, his thesis about the insecurity of individuals even of high social rank in the modern world.

True, Voltaire, through the mouth of Martin, declares that “there are millions of people in the world much more worthy of regret than King Charles Edward, Emperor Ivan and Sultan Akhmet.”

Candide searches for Cunegonde with extraordinary tenacity. His persistence seems to be rewarded. In Turkey, he meets Cunegonde, who from a magnificent beauty has turned into a wrinkled old woman with red, watery eyes. Candide marries her only out of a desire to annoy her brother the Baron, who stubbornly opposes this marriage. Pangloss in the finale of the story is also only a certain semblance of a person. He “admitted that he always suffered terribly” and only out of stubbornness did not part with the theory of the best of all worlds.

Criticizing the social order of Europe and America, Voltaire in Candide depicts the utopian country of Eldorado. Everything here is fantastically beautiful: an abundance of gold and precious stones, fountains of rose water, the absence of prisons, etc. Even the pavement stones here smell of cloves and cinnamon. Voltaire treats Eldorado with slight irony. He himself does not believe in the possibility of the existence of such an ideal region. It is not for nothing that Candide and Cacambo ended up in it completely by accident. No one knows the path to it and, therefore, it is completely impossible to achieve it. Thus, the general pessimistic view of the world remains. Martin successfully proves that “there is very little virtue and very little happiness on earth, with the possible exception of El Dorado, where no one can go.”

The countless riches taken by the hero of the story from America are also fragile. They are literally “melting” every day. The gullible Candide is deceived at every step, his illusions are destroyed. Instead of the object of his youthful love, he receives a grumpy old woman as a result of all his wanderings and suffering; instead of the treasures of Eldorado, he only has a small farm. What to do? Logically speaking, from the gloomy picture painted by Voltaire, a conclusion is possible: if the world is so bad, then it is necessary to change it. But the writer does not make such a radical conclusion: Obviously, the reason is the obscurity of his social ideal. Sarcastically ridiculing his contemporary society, Voltaire cannot oppose anything to it except utopia. He does not offer any real ways to transform reality.

In the work and in Voltaire’s life itself, they were most clearly embodied characteristic features the era of Enlightenment, its problems and the very human type of enlightener: philosopher, writer, public figure. That is why his name became, as it were, a symbol of the era, giving the name to a whole mental movement on a European scale (“Voltairianism”), although many of his contemporaries were significantly ahead of him in the field of philosophical, political and social ideas.

Francois-Marie Arouet (1694 - 1778), who went down in history under the name Voltaire, was born into the family of a wealthy Parisian notary. His father's fortune, which was later increased thanks to his own business abilities, provided him with financial independence, which allowed him to change his place of residence in dangerous moments of his life, to leave Paris and France for a long time, without the risk of falling into poverty. Voltaire studied at the best Jesuit college of those times, where, in addition to the traditional classical education (which he later cruelly laughed at), he acquired strong friendly ties with the scions of noble families, who later occupied important government positions. Voltaire's youth passed in aristocratic literary circles that were opposed to the official regime. There he went through the first school of freethinking and managed to attract attention with the wit, grace and audacity of his poems. Literary success cost him a short-term imprisonment in the Bastille - he was considered the author of a pamphlet on the regent Philip of Orleans. After his release, in the fall of 1718, his tragedy “Oedipus” was presented at the French Comedy Theater, on the poster of which the literary pseudonym “Voltaire” first appeared (later he resorted to many other pseudonyms when he wanted to hide his authorship).

Literary work Voltaire's reign in 1726 was interrupted by a new arrest - this time as a result of a quarrel with the arrogant aristocrat Chevalier de Rohan, who ordered his lackeys to beat Voltaire with sticks. This demonstrative gesture of the aristocrat towards the bourgeoisie and the position of non-interference taken by Voltaire’s noble friends made him clearly feel his inferiority in the face of class privileges. Voltaire's opponent, taking advantage of family connections, hid him in the Bastille. After being released from prison, Voltaire, on the advice of friends, went to England, where he stayed for about two years. There he completed the national heroic poem “Henriad” (1728), begun back in 1722.

Acquaintance with the political, social and spiritual life of England was of great importance for Voltaire’s worldview and creativity. He reflected his impressions in a compact, journalistically sharpened form in “Philosophical (or English) Letters.” Published in France in 1734, this book was immediately banned and burned by the hand of the executioner as blasphemous and seditious. In it, Voltaire, while maintaining a critical attitude towards English reality, emphasized its advantages over the French one. This concerned, first of all, religious tolerance towards sects and faiths that did not belong to the official Anglican Church, constitutional rights protecting the integrity of the individual, respect for people of spiritual culture - scientists, writers, artists. A number of chapters of the book are devoted to the characteristics of English science, philosophy (especially Locke), literature and theater. Voltaire was greatly impressed by Shakespeare, who he first saw on stage and until then completely unknown in France.

Voltaire's sharply critical position towards the church and the court brought persecution on him, which could have resulted in a new arrest. He considered it wise to take refuge away from Paris on the estate of his friend the Marquise du Châtelet, one of the most intelligent and educated women of that time. The fifteen years he spent at her castle in Ciret in Champagne were filled with active and varied activities. Voltaire wrote in all literary and scientific-journalistic genres. Over the years, he wrote dozens of theatrical plays, many poems, the poem “The Virgin of Orleans,” historical works, a popular exposition of Newton’s theory, philosophical works(“Treatise on Metaphysics”), polemical articles. Throughout his life, Voltaire maintained an extensive correspondence, amounting to dozens of volumes. These letters reveal to us the appearance of a tireless fighter for freedom of thought, a defender of victims of fanaticism, who instantly responded to manifestations of social injustice and lawlessness.

Voltaire's relationship with French court were tense. His attempts to make a diplomatic career failed. The royal favorite, the Marquise de Pompadour, interfered with both his courtiers and literary career, her intrigues and the machinations of the Jesuits slowed down his election to the French Academy (it took place only in 1746 after three unsuccessful attempts). Voltaire had to fight to stage his tragedies, which were subject to censorship restrictions.

After the death of the Marquise du Châtelet (1749), Voltaire, at the invitation of Frederick II, came to Prussia. Three years spent in the Prussian residence in Potsdam (1750 - 1753) in the royal service opened his eyes to the true meaning of the “enlightened” rule of this “philosopher on the throne.” Frederick willingly demonstrated his religious tolerance to world public opinion (in defiance of the rulers of Catholic countries with whom he was in constant military conflicts). He formed his Academy from French scientists and writers persecuted in their homeland for freethinking. But even with these people he remained the same rude and treacherous despot that he was with his subjects. Voltaire saw in Prussia the poverty of the peasantry, the horrors of conscription and army drill. After a conflict with the king, he resigned and wished to leave the Prussian court. Permission was given, but on the way to France, Voltaire was detained by Prussian gendarmes and subjected to a rude and insulting search.

Returning to his homeland did not promise him anything comforting, and he chose to settle on the territory of the Geneva Republic, close to the French border (“My front paws are in France, my hind paws are in Switzerland; depending on where the danger comes from, I press first one, then the other,” - he wrote to friends). He acquired several estates, of which Ferney became his main residence and the center of world cultural pilgrimage. Here Voltaire spent the last 24 years of his life. Here he was visited by writers, actors - performers of his plays, public figures, travelers from different countries Europe (including from Russia). Victims of fanaticism and tyranny sought refuge and protection here. It was during these years that the social activities Voltaire and his world authority reaches its apogee.

In the early 1760s, in Toulouse, on the initiative of the church authorities, a court case was initiated against the Protestant Jean Calas, accused of murdering his son, allegedly because he was going to convert to Catholicism. The trial was conducted in violation of all legal norms, false witnesses were brought in, the accused was subjected to severe torture, but never pleaded guilty. Nevertheless, according to the court's verdict, he was quartered and his body was burned. Voltaire spent a long time collecting materials to review the case, attracted authoritative lawyers to it, and most importantly, world public opinion. The review of Kalas' case, which ended with posthumous rehabilitation and the return of rights to his family, turned into an exposure of religious fanaticism and judicial arbitrariness. Almost simultaneously, in the same Toulouse, a similar case was initiated against another Protestant, Sirven, who managed to escape from the city in time and escape from reprisals. Voltaire achieved an acquittal in this case as well. The third trial fell on a young man - Cavalier de La Barra, accused of desecration of shrines and atheism. One of the pieces of evidence included Voltaire’s “Philosophical Dictionary” found in his possession. La Barra was executed after having his tongue torn out. During these years, Voltaire’s slogan, with which he began all his letters, was: “Crush the reptile!” (i.e. the Catholic Church). His speeches against judicial arbitrariness and lawlessness in a number of other trials are known.

IN recent years In his life, the name of the “Patriarch of Ferney” was surrounded by a halo of worldwide recognition, but he did not dare return to Paris, fearing possible reprisals. Only after the death of Louis XV, when many contemporaries had hopes for a more liberal rule of his successor (illusions that turned out to be short-lived), did he allow himself to be convinced and in the spring of 1778 he came to the capital. A real triumph awaited Voltaire - crowds of people greeted his carriage with flowers; at the French Comedy Theater he attended the performance of his last tragedy “Irene”, the actors crowned his bust with a laurel wreath. A few days later Voltaire died. His nephew took the body secretly from the capital, anticipating possible complications with the funeral - the church would not miss the opportunity to settle scores with him. Indeed, the day after the funeral (at the Abbey of Celliers in Champagne), a ban came from the local bishop to bury Voltaire. In 1791, his ashes were transferred to the Pantheon in Paris. Voltaire's extensive library, containing many of his notes in the fields, was purchased by Catherine II from his heirs and is currently kept in the Russian National Library in St. Petersburg.

In his philosophical views, Voltaire was a deist. He denied the immortality and immateriality of the soul, resolutely rejected Descartes' doctrine of “innate ideas,” contrasting it with the empirical philosophy of Locke. On the question of God and the act of creation, Voltaire took the position of a reserved agnostic. In his Treatise on Metaphysics (1734), he presented a number of arguments for and against the existence of God, came to the conclusion that both were untenable, but avoided a final solution to this issue. He had a sharply negative attitude towards any official creeds; he ridiculed religious dogmas and rituals as incompatible with reason and common sense (especially in the Explained Bible, 1776, and the Philosophical Dictionary, 1764), but he believed that only an enlightened elite, while the common people need religious teaching as a restraining moral principle (“If God did not exist, he would have to be invented”). Of course, he envisioned such a religion as free from coercion, intolerance and fanaticism. This dual approach to religion reflected Voltaire’s inherent “aristocratism” of thinking, which also manifested itself in his social views: while speaking out against poverty, he nevertheless considered it necessary to divide society into the poor and the rich, in which he saw a stimulus for progress (“Otherwise, who would become would you like to pave roads?").

On a number of philosophical issues, Voltaire's views evolved noticeably. Thus, until 1750, he, although with reservations, shared the optimistic worldview characteristic of the European Enlightenment at an early stage (Leibniz, Shaftesbury, A. Pope), and the determinism associated with it - the recognition of the cause-and-effect relationship that dominates the world and creates relative balance of good and evil. These views were reflected in his early philosophical stories (“Zadig”, 1747) and poems (“Discourse on Man”, 1737). In the mid-1750s, Voltaire moved away from this concept and launched a strong critique of Leibniz's optimistic philosophy. The impetus was, on the one hand, his Prussian experience, on the other, the Lisbon earthquake of 1755, which destroyed not only the big city, but also the optimistic faith of many contemporaries in the wisdom of the all-good supreme Providence. Voltaire's philosophical poem about the death of Lisbon is dedicated to this event, in which he directly opposes the theory of world harmony. Using broader material, this polemic was developed in the philosophical story “Candide, or Optimism” (1759) and a number of pamphlets (“The Ignorant Philosopher”, etc.).

Historical works occupy a large place in Voltaire's work. The first of them, “The History of Charles XII” (1731), gives a biography of the Swedish king, who, according to Voltaire, represented an archaic, backward-looking type of conquering monarch. His political antagonist is Peter I, a monarch-reformer and educator. For many theorists of state power, the figure of Peter was represented in the halo of ideas of an “enlightened monarchy,” which they searched in vain among Western European rulers. For Voltaire, the very choice of this antithesis (Charles - Peter) confirmed his basic philosophical and historical idea: the struggle of two opposing principles, personifying the past and the future and embodied in outstanding personalities. Voltaire's book is written as a fascinating narrative, in which dynamic action is combined with merciless accuracy of assessments and the lively art of portraiture of heroes. This type of historical narrative was completely new and contrasted sharply with the official doxologies and boring factual writing that dominated the historical writings of his time. What was also new was the appeal to contemporary events that had just died down. Thirty years later, Voltaire again turned to the figure of Peter - this time in a special work written on behalf of the Russian court: “History of Russia in the reign of Peter” (1759 - 1763). During these years, when he was especially concerned about the problem of church intervention in state affairs, the independent policy of Peter, who limited the powers of the church to purely religious affairs, came to the fore.

The fundamental work “The Age of Louis XIV” (1751) is devoted to the analysis of the recent past of national history, in which Voltaire unfolds a broad panorama of the life of France during the previous reign. In contrast to the traditions of historiography of that time, which wrote histories of kings and military campaigns, Voltaire dwells in detail on economic life, on Colbert’s reforms, on foreign policy, religious disputes and, finally, on the French culture of the “golden” classical age, which Voltaire highly valued. Voltaire's book was banned by censors not only because of its critical assessment of the late monarch, but also because of the too obvious contrast between the brilliant last century and the insignificant present.

The most significant historical essay Voltaire’s work on world history, “Essay on the Manners and Spirit of Nations” (1756), was a well-known analogy with Montesquieu’s work “On the Spirit of Laws” in concept and breadth of coverage. Unlike his predecessors, who began the history of the human race with the fall of Adam and Eve and brought it to the era of migration of peoples, Voltaire begins the history of mankind from a primitive state (which is partly judged by descriptions of the life of savages on the distant islands of the Pacific Ocean) and brings it to the discovery America. Here his philosophy of history comes out especially clearly: world events are presented under the sign of the struggle of ideas - reason and superstition, humanity and fanaticism. Thus, historical research in Voltaire is subordinated to the same journalistic and ideological task - the exposure of priests and clergy, as well as the founders of religious teachings and institutions.

The same principles of a philosophical and at the same time journalistic approach to historical material underlie Voltaire’s first great poem, “The Henriad” (1728), glorifying Henry IV. For Voltaire, he embodies the idea of ​​an “enlightened monarch”, a champion of religious tolerance. The poem depicts the era religious wars in France (late 16th century). One of its most impressive episodes is the description of St. Bartholomew's Night, which Henry tells Queen Elizabeth of England about. Henry's trip to England itself is a free fiction of the poet, but, according to Voltaire, such a fiction is legitimate, even when we are talking about a relatively recent past, well known to readers - the whole point is that the fiction remains within the limits of the “possible”, not contradicted him. Voltaire needed the English episode to introduce a description of the political structure of England, religious tolerance, i.e. those topics that would soon be developed in the Philosophical Letters. Another example of “updating” historical material is Henry’s “prophetic dream” (a traditional motif of an epic poem), in which St. Louis tells him the history of France and its immediate future under Henry’s descendants - Louis XIII and XIV, that is, already directly brought to the present. Voltaire tried to combine this “updating” with the canonical rules of constructing a classical epic: following the ancient models - Homer and Virgil - he introduces traditional plot motifs: a storm at sea, a love episode in the castle of the beautiful Gabrielle d'Estrée, in whose arms Henry almost died forgets about his high mission, etc. Voltaire tries in a rationalistic spirit to rethink the obligatory “upper layer” of characters - instead of the ancient gods interfering in the destinies of people, he introduces the allegorical figures of Fanaticism, Discord, Rumor. However, these attempts at modern rethinking of the poetic system, which developed in other conditions, on other material, turned out to be untenable - the actual content at every step came into collision with the ossified form. Enthusiastically greeted by contemporaries brought up in classical taste, “Henriada” subsequently lost its poetic sound (with the exception of impressive picture St. Bartholomew's Night).

Voltaire’s experiments in the new genre of “philosophical poem”, born of the Enlightenment, turned out to be much more integral and artistically effective. In 1722, he wrote the poem “Pros and Cons,” in which he formulated the main principles of “natural religion” - deism. In the poem, he rejects the very idea of ​​canonical and dogmatic religion, the idea of ​​God as an inexorable punitive force, and advocates for the victims of fanaticism, in particular the pagan tribes of the New World. Subsequently, Voltaire more than once turned to the genre of “philosophical poem,” a plotless poem that combines pathetic eloquence with well-aimed, witty denunciations and paradoxes.

Voltaire’s most famous poem is “The Virgin of Orleans,” which was published in the mid-1750s without the author’s knowledge in a highly distorted form. Voltaire had been working on the poem since the mid-1720s, constantly expanding the text, but was wary of publishing it. The publication of a “pirate” edition forced him to release it in 1762 in Geneva, but without the name of the author. The poem was immediately included in the “List of Prohibited Books” by French censorship.

Originally conceived as a parody of a poem by a minor author of the 17th century. Chaplin's "Virgin", Voltaire's poem grew into a devastating satire on the church, clergy, and religion. Voltaire debunks in it the sugary and sanctimonious legend about Joan of Arc as the chosen one of heaven. Parodically playing on the motif of miraculous power stemming from Jeanne's purity and virginity, which became the guarantee and condition of her victory over the English, Voltaire takes this idea to the point of absurdity: the plot is based on the fact that Jeanne's maiden honor is the subject of attacks and insidious intrigues on the part of the enemies of France. Following the traditions of Renaissance literature, Voltaire repeatedly uses this erotic motif, ridiculing, on the one hand, the sanctimonious version of the supernatural essence of Jeanne’s feat, and on the other, showing a whole string of depraved, selfish, deceitful and treacherous clergy of various ranks - from an archbishop to a simple ignorant monk . In a truly Renaissance spirit, the morals prevailing in the monasteries and at the court of the pampered and frivolous Charles VII are described. In this monarch of the Hundred Years' War and in his mistress Agnes Sorel, contemporaries easily recognized the features of Louis XV and the Marquise de Pompadour.

As the “heavenly powers” ​​required in a high epic poem, Voltaire introduces two warring saints - the patron saints of England and France - St. George and St. Denis. The traditional battles of the gods in the Homeric epic turn here into a hand-to-hand fight, a tavern brawl, a bitten off ear and a damaged nose. Thus, Voltaire continues the tradition of the burlesque poem of the 17th century, which presented a high plot in a reduced vulgar spirit. The image is designed in the same vein main character- a red-cheeked tavern maid with heavy fists, capable of standing up for her honor and putting enemies to flight on the battlefield. Artistic structure The poem is thoroughly permeated with parodic elements: in addition to Chaplain’s poem, the very genre of the heroic epic with its traditional plot situations and stylistic devices is parodied.

“The Virgin of Orleans” from the moment of its appearance to this day has caused the most controversial assessments and judgments. Some (for example, young Pushkin) admired her wit, audacity, and brilliance; others were outraged at the “mockery of a national shrine.” Meanwhile, the feat of Jeanne as a national heroine was inaccessible to Voltaire’s consciousness, for, according to his historical concept, it is not the people who make history, but the clash of ideas - light and dark. In “An Essay on the Morals and Spirit of Nations” (1756), he speaks with indignation about the obscurantist clergy, “in their cowardly cruelty, who condemned this courageous girl to the stake.” And at the same time, he speaks of the naive, unenlightened consciousness of a simple peasant girl, who easily believed in the idea instilled in her of her divine destiny and chosenness. For Voltaire the historian, Jeanne is a passive instrument and at the same time a victim of other people’s aspirations, interests, intrigues, and not an active one. character history. This allowed him to interpret, without any reverence, the figure of Joan in his satirical anti-clerical and anti-religious poem.

A prominent place in Voltaire’s artistic work is occupied by dramatic genres, especially tragedies, of which he wrote about thirty over sixty years. Voltaire perfectly understood the effectiveness of theatrical art in promoting advanced educational ideas. He himself was an excellent reciter and constantly participated in home performances of his plays. Actors from Paris often visited him, he learned roles with them, and drew up a plan for the production, to which he attached great importance in achieving a spectacular effect. He paid a lot of attention to the theory of dramatic art.

In Voltaire's tragedies, even more clearly than in poetry, the transformation of the principles of classicism in the spirit of new educational tasks appears. In his aesthetic views, Voltaire was a classicist. He generally accepted the system of classicist tragedy - high style, compact composition, observance of unities. But at the same time, he was not satisfied with the state of the modern tragic repertoire - the sluggishness of the action, the static nature of the mise-en-scène, the absence of any spectacular effects. A sensationalist in his philosophical beliefs, Voltaire sought to influence not only the mind, the consciousness of the audience, but also their feelings - he spoke about this more than once in prefaces, letters, and theoretical writings. This is what initially attracted him to Shakespeare. Reproaching the English playwright for “ignorance” (i.e., ignorance of the rules learned from the ancients), for rudeness and obscenity, unacceptable “in decent society,” for combining high and low style, combining the tragic and comic in one play, Voltaire paid tribute to expressiveness, tension and dynamism of his dramas. In a number of tragedies of the 1730s and 1740s, traces of Shakespeare’s external influence are felt ( storyline"Othello" in "Zaire", "Hamlet" in "Semiramis"). He creates a translation and adaptation of Shakespeare's "Julius Caesar", risking doing without female roles in this tragedy (an unheard of thing on the French stage!). But in the last decades of his life, having witnessed the growing popularity of Shakespeare in France, Voltaire became seriously alarmed for the fate of the French classical theater, which was clearly retreating under the onslaught of the plays of the English “barbarian,” the “fair jester,” as he now calls Shakespeare.

Voltaire's tragedies are dedicated to pressing social problems that worried the writer throughout his work: first of all, the fight against religious intolerance and fanaticism, political arbitrariness, despotism and tyranny, which are opposed by republican virtue and civic duty. Already in the first tragedy “Oedipus” (1718) within the framework of the traditional mythological plot the thought sounds about the mercilessness of the gods and the cunning of the priests, pushing weak mortals to commit crimes. In one of the most famous tragedies, “Zaire” (1732), the action takes place during the era of the Crusades in the Middle East. The contrast between Christians and Muslims is clearly not in favor of the former. The tolerant and generous Sultan Orosman is opposed by intolerant crusading knights, who demand that Zaira, a Christian raised in a harem, refuse to marry her beloved Orosman and secretly flee to France with her father and brother. Secret negotiations between Zaira and her brother, misinterpreted by Orosman as a love date, lead to a tragic outcome - Orosman lies in wait for Zaira, kills her and, having learned about his mistake, commits suicide. This external similarity of the plot line of “Zaire” with “Othello” subsequently served as a reason for sharp criticism from Lessing. However, Voltaire did not at all strive to compete with Shakespeare in revealing the spiritual world of the hero. His task was to show the tragic consequences of religious intolerance, which impedes free human feeling.

The problem of religion is posed in a much more acute form in the tragedy “Mohammed” (1742). The founder of Islam appears in it as a conscious deceiver, artificially inciting the fanaticism of the masses in order to please his ambitious plans. According to Voltaire himself, his Mohammed is “Tartuffe with a weapon in his hands.” Mohammed speaks with disdain of the blindness of the “unenlightened mob,” which he will force to serve his own interests. With sophisticated cruelty, he pushes the young man Seid, who was raised by him and blindly devoted to him, to commit parricide, and then deals with him in cold blood. In this tragedy, the principle of the playwright’s use of historical material is especially clear: Voltaire is interested in a historical event not in its specificity, but as a universal, generalized example of a certain idea, as a model of behavior - in this case, the founder of any new religion. The French ecclesiastical authorities immediately understood this and banned the production of “Mahomet”; they saw in it a denunciation not only of the Muslim religion, but also of Christianity. In the tragedy "Alzira" (1736), Voltaire shows the cruelty and fanaticism of the Spanish conquerors of Peru. In later tragedies of the 1760s, the problems of forcibly imposed monastic vows (“Olympia”, 1764) and restrictions on the power of the church by the state (“Gebras”, 1767) were raised. The republican theme is developed in the tragedies “Brutus” (1730), “The Death of Caesar” (1735), “Agathocles” (1778). This whole range of problems required a wider range of subjects than the one that was established in the classicist literature. tragedy XVII V. Voltaire turned to the European Middle Ages (“Tancred”), to the history of the East (“The Chinese Orphan”, 1755, with the main character Genghis Khan), to the conquest of the New World (“Alzira”), without, however, abandoning traditional ancient subjects (“ Orestes, Merope). Thus, while preserving the principles of classicist poetics, Voltaire pushed its boundaries from within and sought to adapt the old, time-honored form to new educational tasks.

Voltaire’s dramaturgy also found room for other genres: he wrote opera texts, funny comedies, comedy-pamphlets, and also paid tribute to the serious moralizing comedy “The Prodigal Son” (1736). It was in the preface to this play that he uttered his now famous saying: “All genres are good, except the boring one.” However, in these plays the strengths of his dramatic skill were manifested to a much lesser extent, while Voltaire’s tragedies throughout the 18th century. occupied a strong place in the European theatrical repertoire.

To this day, his philosophical stories remain the brightest and most vibrant in Voltaire’s artistic heritage. This genre was formed during the Enlightenment and absorbed its main problems and artistic discoveries. At the heart of each such story is a certain philosophical thesis, which is proven or refuted by the entire course of the narrative. Often it is indicated already in the title itself: “Zadig, or Fate” (1747), “Memnon, or Human Prudence” (1749), “Candide, or Optimism” (1759).

In his early stories of the 1740s, Voltaire made extensive use of 18th-century French literature. oriental stylization. Thus, “Zadig” is dedicated to the “Sultana Sheraa” (in whom they tended to see the Marquise de Pompadour) and is presented as a translation from an Arabic manuscript. The action takes place in the conventional East (Babylon) in an equally conventionally designated era. The chapters of the story are completely independent short stories and anecdotes, based on authentic oriental material and only conditionally connected by the story of the hero’s misadventures. They confirm the thesis expressed in one of the last chapters: “There is no evil that does not give rise to good.” The trials and successes sent down by fate to Zadig each time turn out to be unexpected and directly opposite to the expected meaning. What people consider to be random is actually due to a universal cause-and-effect relationship. In this story, Voltaire is still firmly in the position of optimism and determinism, although this does not in the least prevent him from satirically depicting the depraved morals of the court, the arbitrariness of his favorites, the ignorance of scientists and doctors, the self-interest and deceit of the priests. The transparent oriental decoration makes it easy to see Paris and Versailles.

The grotesque satirical manner of narration, already characteristic of this story, sharply intensifies in “Micromegas” (1752). Here Voltaire acts as a student of Swift, to whom he directly refers in the text of the story. Using Swift's "modified optics" technique, he pits a giant inhabitant of the planet Sirius - Micromegas - against a much smaller inhabitant of Saturn, then shows the insignificant, barely distinguishable insects that inhabit the Earth as seen through their eyes: these tiny creatures, seriously imagining themselves to be human, swarm, they are angry, destroying each other because of “several heaps of dirt” that they have never seen and which will go not to them, but to their sovereigns; they conduct profound philosophical debates, which do not in the least move them on the path of knowledge of the truth. At parting, Micromegas hands them his philosophical work, written for them in the smallest handwriting. But the secretary of the Academy of Sciences in Paris finds nothing in it except white paper.

Voltaire’s deepest and most significant story, “Candide,” clearly reveals the philosophical turning point that occurred in the writer’s mind after returning from Prussia and the Lisbon earthquake. Leibniz’s optimistic idea about the “pre-established harmony of good and evil”, about the cause-and-effect relationship that reigns in this “best of possible worlds”, is consistently refuted by the events of the life of the main character, the modest and virtuous young man Candide: for his unjust expulsion from the baronial castle, where he was brought up out of mercy, followed by forced recruitment, torture by spitzrutens (an echo of Voltaire’s Prussian impressions), pictures of bloody massacres and looting of soldiers, the Lisbon earthquake, etc. The narrative is structured as a parody of an adventure novel - the heroes experience the most incredible adventures that follow each other behind a friend at a breakneck pace; they are killed (but not completely!), hanged (but not completely!), then they are resurrected; lovers, separated seemingly forever, meet again and are united in a happy marriage, when not a trace remains of their youth and beauty. The action moves from Germany to Portugal, to the New World, to the utopian country of Eldorado, where gold and precious stones lie on the ground like simple pebbles; then the heroes return to Europe and finally find a peaceful refuge in Turkey, where they plant an orchard. The very contrast between the mundane everyday ending and the intensely dramatic events preceding it is characteristic of the grotesque manner of storytelling. The action with its unexpected, paradoxical turns, rapid changes of episodes, scenery and characters turns out to be strung on an ongoing philosophical dispute between the Leibnizian Pangloss, the pessimist Martin and Candide, which gradually, wisely life experience, begins to be critical of Pangloss’s optimistic doctrine and responds to his arguments about the natural connection of events: “You said it well, but we need to cultivate our garden.” Such an ending to the story may mean Voltaire’s frequent departure from any definite decision, from the choice between two opposing concepts of the world. But another interpretation is also possible - a call to turn from useless word debates to real, practical, even small, deeds.

The action of the story “The Simple-minded” (1767) takes place entirely in France, although main character- an Indian from the Huron tribe who ended up in Europe by force of circumstances. Turning to the “natural man” so popular during the Enlightenment,

Voltaire uses here the technique of “defamiliarization” (the concept of “defamiliarization” was introduced by V. B. Shklovsky in 1914), used by Montesquieu in the Persian Letters and Swift in Gulliver’s Travels. France, its public institutions, despotism and arbitrariness of royal power, the omnipotence of ministers and favorites, absurd church prohibitions and regulations, prejudices are shown with the fresh look of a person who grew up in a different world, different living conditions. The hero's simple-minded bewilderment about everything he sees and what stands in the way of his union with his beloved girl turns into a chain of misadventures and persecutions for him. The conventionally prosperous ending of “Candide” and “Zadig” is contrasted here with a sad denouement - the death of a virtuous girl who sacrifices her honor to free her lover from prison. The author’s final conclusion this time is much more unambiguous: he contrasts the Leibnizian formula, reduced to the level of everyday wisdom “There is no cloud without a good,” with the judgment of “honest people”: “There is no good from a bad thing!” The parodic grotesque style, the style of dissonance and deliberate exaggeration, which dominates in “Candide,” is replaced in “The Innocent” by a restrained and simple composition. The coverage of the phenomena of reality is more limited and clearly closer to the conditions of French life. The satirical effect is achieved here throughout the narrative through the “other vision” through the eyes of the Huron and culminates in the bleak ending: sacrifices and trials were in vain; everyone received their share of pitiful handouts and meager benefits - from lemon drops to diamond earrings and a small church parish; anger, indignation and indignation drown in the quagmire of momentary well-being.

In Voltaire's philosophical stories we would search in vain for psychologism, immersion in the spiritual world of characters, a reliable depiction of human characters or a plausible plot. The main thing about them is extremely pointed satirical image social evil, cruelty and meaninglessness of existing social institutions and relations. This harsh reality tests the true value of philosophical interpretations of the world.

An appeal to real life, to its acute social and spiritual conflicts, permeates all of Voltaire’s work - his philosophy, journalism, poetry, prose, drama. For all its topicality, it deeply penetrates into the essence of universal human problems that go far beyond the boundaries of the era when the writer lived and worked.