Archives – as a sociocultural phenomenon. The essence of the concept of “archive”
ARCHIVES [from the Greek αρχε?α, literally - superior (records), that is, official documents; Late Latin Archium, Archivum - archive], 1) a set of archival documents formed as a result of the activities of institutions, organizations, enterprises, as well as individuals; 2) institutions or structural divisions of organizations or departments that receive, store and process documents for the purpose of their further use; 3) information systems, which are organizationally ordered sets of archival funds, collections, documents, created and used information technologies, scientific reference apparatus, databases and data banks. At the beginning of the 21st century, archives are considered as an important element of the social and cultural memory of society, necessary for the self-identification of an individual and a nation.
Archives abroad. In Ancient Rome, the terms “ararium”, “tabularium”, etc. were used to designate the place where documents were stored. After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire (476), the word “archive”, which was briefly used during the time of Emperor Justinian I in Byzantium, was forgotten. In Europe in the 10th-15th centuries, the following terms were used to designate the place where old documents were stored: “scriptorium”, “chartularium” (repository of charters) and so on. The term “archive” reasserted itself on the eve of modern times. IN German The word “Archiv” (singular) was fixed, in French - “archives” (preserving the Latin root, reproduced the Greek plural), denoting both documents and the premises and institution where they were stored.
At the first stage of development of archives, their main function was the storage of books and documents. The appearance of the first clay “cuneiform” archives coincides with the emergence of writing at the turn of the 4th and 3rd millennium BC. In all the ancient centers of Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China, scientists have excavated archives containing the most valuable letters and documents. IN Ancient Greece(“Metroon” in Athens) and in Ancient Rome (“Erarium” or “Tabularium” in Rome) archives were more administrative in nature than in the Ancient East. Archives of institutions (censors, city councils, etc.) were formed. Archives of governors and military garrisons were compiled locally. Temple (priestly) archives continued to play a major role. Widespread received private archives of traders, moneylenders, landowners, writers, and scientists. In both Greece and Rome, archival documents began to be used when writing historical works. For the first time, attempts to concentrate knowledge recorded in writing were made in large repositories: the Library of Alexandria, the Pergamon and Antioch libraries. The archives continued to remain closely connected with the treasury, the office, and with museum and library materials, without becoming independent institutions. In the middle of the 1st millennium AD, the archives of the Christian Church were born (Vatican Archives, or Archives of the Popes, 4th century; archives of the monasteries, 6th century). Rich book and archival collections were concentrated in the scriptoria of the monasteries (Montecassino, Farfa, Bobbio, Saint-Germain, St. Gallen, etc.).
The first attempt to restore “Roman traditions” in early Middle Ages belonged to Emperor Charles I the Great, who organized an office and palace archive at his court. From the 10th-11th centuries, feudal lords, as their economic, political and military power strengthened, created their own offices. In Byzantium, legislative, administrative and foreign policy documentation was assigned to the imperial office, and financial and fiscal documentation was assigned to central and local institutions (the governors in the provinces). At different periods there were archives at the highest levels educational institutions: University of Constantinople, Higher Patriarchal School, Higher Law School, Higher School of the Holy Apostles, etc. A variety of documentation was deposited in church archives, among which the repository of the Patriarchate of Constantinople played an important role. Archival work was also developed in the Caliphate. At the beginning of the 9th century, there was a huge library in Baghdad, in which scientists from the “House of Wisdom” worked at the court of Caliph al-Mamun. Even more handwritten books (up to 400 thousand volumes) were kept in the library-archive of Caliph Hakam II (2nd half of the 10th century).
During the period of mature feudalism (12-13 centuries), with its predominance of property law over public law, there was a significant growth in seigneurial and especially royal archives, such as the Treasury of Charters in France, the Chapel of the Rolls in England, and the Archive of the Aragonese Crown in Zaragoza in Spain. As the apparatus of public administration developed, new types of archives appeared: the Parliament and the Court of Accounts in France, the Parliament and the Chamber of the Chessboard in England. City, notary, hospital and university archives arose in cities (Bologna, Paris and Montpellier, Oxford, Cambridge, etc.).
During the Renaissance, the emergence of printing gradually led to the fact that archival and library materials began to be stored separately. Archives were viewed as repositories of legal papers, which recorded the rights of the upper classes to certain privileges. They were often called “treasuries of charters”, “authentic archives”, “treasury”, which reflected the evolution of social and legal relations of society. By the end of the 15th century, the functions of archives as a place for storing legal, legislative and regulatory documents became predominant.
The second stage in the development of archives (from the 16th century to the turn of the 19th-20th century) was marked by the appearance of many different archives in European countries. The emerging administrative-fiscal apparatus of the absolutist states, preserving the crown archives, created numerous office archives and registry archives (departmental archives). To preserve the most important documents in many countries, central repositories were reorganized or created anew, which in the literature were called the main political archives. Thus, at the court of the Spanish kings in the mid-16th century, the famous Simancas archive arose. In France, the functions of the main archive of the kingdom continued to be performed by the Treasury of Charters. Central archives are created in Great Britain (State Papers Archive), Sweden, Austria (Secret Palace State Dynastic Archives) and in most German states. In 1612, the Vatican Secret Archives became an independent repository, separated from the library. In countries where the Reformation was victorious, church documentation fell into state custody. During the French Revolution of the 18th century, feudal archives were largely destroyed. After it, the process of concentrating archives and centralizing their management accelerated. First in France, then in Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, and in the German states, national (central) archives appeared.
During the colonial conquests of the countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America, their archival wealth was stolen, ancient manuscripts were taken to the metropolis or destroyed. Only towards the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, archives of colonial administrations began to be created in a number of colonies: the British - Archive of the Empire in India (1891), the French - in West Africa (1913), etc. The main sets of documents on the development of the colonies were concentrated in the central archive of the metropolises (Archive of the Indies in Spain, State Archives in Great Britain, National Archives in France, etc.).
At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries it began new stage development of archives, archival business becomes a branch of state activity headed by general (main) directorates or national (central) archives. Gradually, in the 19th and 20th centuries, a network of local and regional archives developed. Nowadays we can distinguish three main types of organization of archives in the world:
1. Centralized: archival directorate - national archives - network of local archives (Belgium, France, Italy, Spain, Russia, China, etc.).
2. Decentralized: national archives - regional and local archives (Great Britain, Germany, USA, Switzerland, Japan, etc.).
3. Mixed (mainly countries in Africa, Asia and, to a lesser extent, Latin America).
In some countries, archives are managed jointly with library and museum services. Although in most countries the country's archival service is subordinate to separate departments (in France - the Ministry of Culture, in Germany - the Ministry of the Interior, in Belgium - the Ministry of Education), there is a clear tendency for archives to be resubordinated to a supra-ministerial body under the president or prime minister. In countries with a federal management system, professional societies of archivists have taken on the scientific coordination role. The functions of archives are acquisition, examination, custody of office work (from the moment documents appear in the offices until they are placed in the archives). In archives, non-traditional media are increasingly used (film-photo-phonological documents, computer databases, etc.), created various types scientific reference apparatus (lists, inventories, calendars, catalogs, reviews, guidebooks, and so on).
Among the foreign archives, there are several that are particularly significant for researchers. One of the largest archives in Western Europe is the Vatican Archives, which stores sources on church history (Catholicism, Protestantism, Orthodoxy, etc.), the history of the countries of Europe, America, Asia, and Africa. The National Archives of France (founded in 1790) stores the most important sets of documents on the history of Western and Central Europe (the earliest date back to the 7th century), as well as numerous sources on the history of Russia and the USSR. The State Archives of Great Britain (1838, London) contains materials on its history and the history of other countries Western Europe, starting from the 12th century (the earliest document is the Domesday Book, 1086), as well as a large volume of documents on the history of colonial politics. The US National Archives and Records Service (1934, Washington) houses documents federal institutions from 1787, as well as a large complex of captured documents.
UNESCO, the International Council of Archives (MCA), formed under it in 1948, the Round Table Conference of Archives and other international specialized organizations make a major contribution to the development of standard standards for all aspects of the work of archives and universal methods for managing records. Their recommendations formed the basis of international treaties on the restitution of archival documents. Archives become part of national and then international automated information structures.
Archives in Russia and the USSR. On the territory Russian Federation the appearance of the first archives dates back to the 1st millennium BC (they originated on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus). IN Ancient Rus' The archives remained for a long time together with the treasury in the treasuries of princes and large feudal lords. With the adoption of Christianity (late 980s), churches and monasteries began to store collections of handwritten books, charters and other valuable documents along with religious objects. St. Sophia Cathedral, the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery in Kyiv, and others had significant collections of documents. The traditions of office work were brought to Rus' by Byzantine clergy. Russian chroniclers used chronological and weather records, hagiographical tales, teachings, messages, letters, etc., when compiling chronicles. The first painting (inventory) of documents is found in the Ipatiev Chronicle (1288). In Novgorod, Pskov and others, so-called city archives were formed. Valuable collections were also formed in the houses of the noble nobility (for example, a collection of documents of the Pskov mayors Doinikovich, including a collection with the text “Tales of Igor’s Campaign”).
After the formation of the Russian state in Moscow in the 16th century, the so-called Tsar’s Archive (“Kept the Tsar’s”) arose - in fact, the first all-Russian state archive, which, along with documents on domestic and foreign policy, incorporated papers from Smolensk, Chernigov, Yaroslavl, Tver and other princes. From the 16th century, archives of orders gradually began to be created, and locally - archives for governors, volostels, and from the 17th century - archives for the voivodes' huts. The most important documents for the state were placed in the archive of the Ambassadorial Prikaz, which became the main political archive of the country in the 17th and early 18th centuries. Rich collections of documents continued to be kept in the archives of churches and monasteries (Kirillo-Velozersky Monastery, Solovetsky Monastery, Spaso-Evfimiev, Trinity-Sergius; Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, etc.).
The reforms of Emperor Peter I led to the design of archives as independent structural units of government institutions. According to the General Regulations of 1720, archival documents were separated from current office work, the procedure for transferring cases to the archives was determined, and the position of an archivist was introduced at each of the newly formed boards. The term “archive” was coined for the first time. The repositories containing the most ancient documents were classified as historical: Moscow Archive of the College of Foreign Affairs (1724; see Archive foreign policy Russian Empire, AVP RI), Discharge-Senate Archive (1763; about 500 thousand files), Land Survey Archive (1768; 1.3 million files by 1918), St. Petersburg (1780; over 1 million files) and Moscow (1782; about 6 million affairs) state archives of old files, the Local Patrimonial Archive (1786; over 40 thousand files), the Moscow branch of the archive of the Inspectorate Department of the War Ministry (1819; since 1865, the Moscow branch of the General Archive of the General Staff, or the Lefortovo Archive; see Russian State Military Historical archive, RGVIA), etc. The development of science, culture and art led to the creation of the archive of the Academy of Sciences (1728; see Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences), the archives of the Hermitage, the Academy of Arts, Moscow University, etc. G. F. made a significant contribution to the organization of archival documents Miller, N.N. Bantysh-Kamensky, M. M. Shcherbatov. Collecting documents by private individuals became widespread (in the 18th century A.A. Bezborodko, I.N. Boltin, D.M. Golitsyn, V.N. Tatishchev, etc. had archival collections).
The formation of ministries at the beginning of the 19th century did not change the departmental principle of organizing archival affairs in the country. Current archives were created at each institution. The following received national significance: the State Archive of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (1832; until 1834 - the 2nd Main Archive of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, now part of the AVP of the Republic of Ingushetia), the Moscow Archive of the Ministry of Justice (1852; united a number of historical archives, became the center of publishing activities for the publication of historical documents). In 1852, the highest approval was given to the decision to create 3 large regional historical archives - Vilna, Kyiv (opened in the same year) and Vitebsk (opened in 1863), archives of ancient acts (contained audit, judicial and other materials of courts, audits of the ruler's estates, The Main Lithuanian Tribunal and other legal acts related to the territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, including Belarusian, Ukrainian, Lithuanian, as well as some Great Russian lands and a number of other regions). Since 1872, the Moscow Palace Archive has been operating (founded in 1869). In Kharkov in 1880, a Historical Archive was created (materials on the history of Left Bank and Sloboda Ukraine from ancient times to the end of the 18th century). Large archival collections in the 19th - early 20th centuries were owned by N.P. Rumyantsev, A.I. Musin-Pushkin, P.M. Stroev, M.P. Pogodin, V.M. Widolsky, A.D. Chertkov, I. E. Zabelin, L.M. Savelov and others. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, due to the rapid overcrowding of archives, their disorder, the lack of special buildings, and a unified management, repeated attempts were made to reform archival affairs (projects by G. A. Rosenkampf, N. V. Kalachov, D.Ya. Samokvasov, as well as archival commissions). At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, Russia came close to creating a special industry state economy- archival affairs.
Period October Revolution 1917 and Civil War 1917-22 - a time of significant losses and destruction of archives as a result of the destruction of documents by the political police and judicial institutions of Russia (most likely by former provocateurs and informers), the destruction of documents during military operations, the nationalization of church and private archives by the Soviet government, the liquidation of state papers during so-called waste paper campaigns and political processes. At this time, there was an active export of documents abroad by emigrants and their purchase by representatives of foreign embassies. In the 1920-30s, a significant number of documents from institutions of the Russian Empire were transferred to the newly formed states: Poland, Finland, and the Baltic countries. Abroad, enormous work on concentrating documents on the history of the social and revolutionary movement, the culture of Russia was carried out by employees of the Russian Foreign Historical Archive in Prague (created in 1923; see Prague Archive), the Hoover Institution for War, Peace and Revolution in Stanford (1923; see Hoover Institution archive ), International Institute of Social History in Amsterdam (1935). The Bakhmetevsky Archive, the Russian Archive in Leeds, etc. also have large collections of Russian documents abroad.
The task of saving archives in Russia during the transition period was taken over by the Union of Russian Archivists (1917-24; chairman A. S. Lappo-Danilevsky in 1917-19, S. F. Platonov in 1919-24). Prominent historians and archivists took part in the work of the Union: I.A. Blinov, N.V. Golitsyn, K. Ya. Zdravomyslov, A. I. Lebedev and others, who, along with taking practical measures to protect and save archives, significantly contributed to the preparation of archival reform. Based on the decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR dated June 1, 1918 “On the reorganization and centralization of archival affairs in the RSFSR,” the process of concentrating documents in central and local state archives became widespread. The archives of government institutions of the Russian Empire were liquidated, and the documents contained in them formed the Unified State Archive Fund (EGAF). To manage the archives, the Main Directorate of Archival Affairs was created in 1918 under the People's Commissariat of Education of the RSFSR. At the direction of V.I. Lenin, V.D. Bonch-Bruevich wrote the brochure “Save the Archives,” which was distributed through “ROSTA Windows” to government agencies. After a series of reorganizations in 1938, archival management was transferred to the NKVD (since 1946 - Ministry of Internal Affairs) of the USSR.
In terms of basic parameters, archival work in the USSR developed in the same way as in Western Europe and the USA. With the development of technology, the sources for collecting archives diversified: they received more and more documents created on new media (film, photo, audio). The 2nd World War of 1939-45, which caused a huge increase in the volume of documentation, confronted the USSR, as well as other countries, with the problem of modernizing archival services. Strict centralized management of archives in the USSR contributed to the concentration of documents in central and local archives, effective control over the safety of documents in departments and their transfer to state storage, and taking into account the national interests of the republics in the creation of national archives. However, there was a lag Soviet archives(since the 1970s) in providing the latest technology and modern buildings, the process of describing archival documents and compiling scientific reference apparatus has slowed down. There was also the practice of creating secret funds, special storage facilities, etc. in archives, which limited access to archival documents.
Since 1956, the USSR Archive Service became a member of the MCA. In 1960, the Main Archival Directorate (GAU) of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs was transformed into the GAU under the USSR Council of Ministers, which was in charge of the central archive of the USSR (13 in total), archival departments and departments of the union republics, central state archives of the union and autonomous republics, archives of territories, regions and districts, city archives with a permanent composition of documents. Archives with a variable composition of documents (district and city) remained under the jurisdiction of the executive committees of district and city councils. The system of party archives, led by the Central Party Archive of the NML under the CPSU Central Committee (now part of the Russian State Archive of Socio-Political History, RGASPI), was under the jurisdiction of party bodies.
According to the decrees of the President of the Russian Federation and resolutions of the Government of the Russian Federation (August 1991), a significant part of the archives of the CPSU and documents of the KGB of the USSR was transferred to the jurisdiction of the archival authorities of the RSFSR. Roskomarchiv became the successor to the GAU under the Council of Ministers of the USSR. The network of central and local archives that stored documents from the party fund automatically became part of the Archive Fund of the Russian Federation. The materials of the Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee were received by the Archive of the President of the Russian Federation (founded in 1992). In 1992-96, the governing body of the archival industry of the Russian Federation was the State Archive Service of Russia, renamed in 1996 into the Federal Archive Service (FAS) of Russia (until 2004). In 1993, the Basic Legislation of the Russian Federation on the Archival Fund of the Russian Federation and archives was adopted. Decrees of the Government of the Russian Federation “On the Federal Archive Service of Russia” (1998), “On the Federal State Archives of Russia” (1999) clarified the structure, status, functions of the federal archives and the FAS. The archives of various special and secret services of the state, the Archive of the President of the Russian Federation and the like, which continue to store secret documentary complexes, as in all countries of the world, are inaccessible to researchers. Since 1992, the publication of the “Historical Archive” magazine, established by the Committee for Archives under the Government of the Russian Federation, has been resumed. After 1992, the Russian Federation, under the terms of restitution, transferred to France, Germany and other countries a number of archival complexes that ended up in the “Special Archives” after the end of World War II (1939-45).
Since June 17, 2004, the functions of providing public services and managing federal property in the field of archival affairs have been carried out by the Federal Archival Agency of the Russian Federation, which is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Culture and Mass Communications of the Russian Federation. Relations in the sphere of organizing storage, acquisition, accounting and use of documents of the Archival Fund of the Russian Federation and other archival documents (regardless of the form of ownership, i.e. in state and non-state institutions, organizations, enterprises) are regulated by the Federal Law “On Archival Affairs in the Russian Federation”. Federation" dated October 22, 2004. An agreement is concluded with the owner who stores the documents of the Archival Fund of the Russian Federation, defining his responsibilities for the storage, recording and use of documents that are subject to future transfer to state storage.
There are 15 central federal archives in the Russian Federation: the State Archive of the Russian Federation, the Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts, the Russian State Historical Archive; RGVIA; Russian State Archive of the Navy, Russian State Archive of Economics, Russian State Archive of Literature and Art, Russian State Military Archive (it also includes the “Special Archive”, which includes two complexes - documents about prisoners of war and prisoners of camps during the Great Patriotic War and the subsequent period; captured documents); Russian State Historical Archive of the Far East; Russian State Archive of Scientific and Technical Documentation; Russian State Archive of Phonological Documents; Russian State Archive of Film and Photo Documents; RGASPI; Russian State Archive modern history; Insurance fund storage center. There are archival authorities in 89 constituent entities of the Russian Federation, 203 state archives and centers for storing modern documentation (former party archives), 2,427 municipal archival institutions subordinate to local governments. Documents on foreign policy are concentrated in two archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs - ΑΒP RI and the Archive of Foreign Policy of the Russian Federation. Materials of a military nature (since 1940) are stored in the Central Archive of the Ministry of Defense and the Central Naval Archive. Documents related to the activities of the Academy of Sciences, personal funds of scientists are stored in the Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences, large scientific and branch archives are located in the institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Valuable monuments of written culture are at the disposal of the manuscript departments of the largest libraries, museums and scientific centers. In total, the archival fund of the Russian Federation contains over 460 million storage units. Archives of religious, political and public organizations, private banks, firms, etc. are in the process of being created. Archival science deals with the history, theory and practice of archival science.
Lit.: Samokvasov D. Ya. Archiving in Russia. M., 1902. Book. 1-2; Archival courses: History of archival work of classical antiquity in Western Europe and the Muslim East. P., 1920; Casanova E. Archivistica. 2ed. Siena, 1928; Cherepnin Ya. V. Russian feudal archives of the XIV-XV centuries M.; L., 1948-1951. Part 1-2; Schellenberg T.R. Modern archives. Principles and techniques. Chi., 1956; Mayakovsky M.L. Essays on the history of archival affairs in the USSR. 2nd ed. M., 1960; Maksakov V.V. History and organization of archival affairs in the USSR (1917-1945). M., 1969; Brenneke A. Archivkunde. Munch., 1970; Posner E. Archives in the ancient world. Camb., 1972; Brzhostovskaya N.V., Ilizarov B.S. Development of archival affairs from ancient times to 1917 // Proceedings of the All-Russian Scientific Research Institute of Documentation and Archival Affairs. M., 1979. T. 1-2; Favier J. Les archives. R., 1985; Samoshenko V.N. History of archival affairs in pre-revolutionary Russia. M., 1989; aka. Historical archives of Moscow and St. Petersburg (XVIII - early XX centuries). M., 1990; Starostin E.V. Archives and archival affairs in foreign countries. Sverdlovsk, 1991; aka. History of Russia in foreign archives. M., 1994; aka. Foreign archival science; problems of history, theory and methodology. M., 1997; aka. Archives of Russia: methodological aspects of archival knowledge. M., 2001; Khorkhordina T.I. History of the Fatherland and archives, 1917-1980s M., 1994; Archives of Russia. Moscow and St. Petersburg: Directory-review and bibliographic index. M., 1997; Karapetyants I. V. Economic archives of Western Europe and the USA until the beginning of the 20th century M., 1997; Kozlov V.P. Russian archival business. M., 1999; Mikhailov O. A. Electronic documents in archives: In 2 books. 3rd ed. M., 2000; Lodolini E. Archivistica: principi e problemi. 9 ed. Mil., 2000; Archival documents in libraries and museums of the Russian Federation. Directory. M., 2003.
1.UNESCO Information Service: The United Nations Social Sciences and Humanities Documentation Center is a subject index to periodical electronic journals in the social sciences, available in full-text format. The list includes more than 100 annotated descriptions of links to online scientific periodicals in anthropology, history, cultural studies, linguistics, management, political science, psychology, sociology, philosophy, economics and other social sciences and humanities in many European languages ( http://www.unesco.org/general/eng/ infoserv/doc/journals/shsjournals.html).
2.Michigan Interuniversity Consortium(Inter-university Consortium for Political Science Research, ICPSR) 14 created in 1962 (Ann Arbor, University of Michigan). Today it is transnational and is called: World Archive of Databases of the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research. It has the status of a non-profit organization, so membership is only available to university and non-profit organizations. Today, its members include more than 300 colleges and universities in North America and several hundred more institutions from all over the world. The ICPSR electronic database covers various fields, including political science, sociology, demography, economics, history, education, gerontology, criminology, health care, international politics and law. The archive is formed from arrays received from US government agencies, various organizations specializing in surveys, polls, questionnaires, international
"Web address: http://www.nlr.ru:8101/e-case/search_extended.php
12 Web address: http://www.nlr.ra/rlin/ruslbr.php?database=INBOOK
13 Web address: http://www.nlr.ru:8101/cgi-bin/wdb-p95.cgi/avtoref/avtoref/form" 4 Official website: http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/index.html
ny associations. The archive stores not only primary data, but also research documentation, explanatory notes on their design and implementation, documents of the scientists who carried out these studies, information on how exactly these data were collected; clarifications during the research process. The archive catalog contains more than 5,000 thematic headings covering 40,000 individual files. Over the 40 years of its existence, the archive has become an important source of information in preparing a large number of dissertations, articles for scientific journals, and conducting cross-country and comparative studies.
3. ProQuest Digital Dissertation Library, created by the information company University of Microfilms International (USA) - an electronic library of master's and doctoral dissertations defended in higher education institutions in the USA and Canada (about 1000 universities, institutes and colleges) in the exact, natural, technical, social and human sciences. The information retrieval system operates under the Web version of the ProQuest(r) interface. More than 100 thousand documents for the current and past years are publicly available ( http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/).
4. Information company The UnCover Company(Denver, USA). The database contains more than 8 million publications out of more than 18 thousand on
scientific journals in all fields of knowledge since 1988. For unregistered users, only unannotated and briefly annotated bibliographic descriptions of stored documents are available (http:, /uncweb.carl.org/).
5. Central Archive for Empirical Social Science Research contains primary* materials (research data, questionnaires, coding sheets), ready* for secondary analysis. Available to all interested (http:/, www.gesis.org/en/za/).
6. Information retrieval system CORDIS(search across all databases) provides opportunities for full-text search of materials< всех программах, включая Рамочные, их компонентах и отдельных проек тах, осуществляемых при полной или частичной поддержке Европейской ко миссии, а именно: документы Комиссии, в том числе регламентирующие ei деятельность; концепции, содержание и рабочая документация по Рамочных программам и их направлениям; заявки на исследования; партнеры по сов местной проектной деятельности; рабочие материалы и отчеты по исследо ваниям (промежуточные по текущим и итоговые по завершившимся); опи сания результатов; научные публикации по проектам (http://dbs.cordis.lu EN_GLOBALsearch.html).
7. RePEc (Research Papers in Economics)- international database combining about 70 archives research organizations, containing 181 thousand working documents, structured into 1000 sections, of which 80 thousand are available online. More than 100 volunteers from 30 countries are collecting data. The server itself does not contain full-text journal articles, but access to them is provided through the appropriate links. The network combines several types of data (documents, published articles, descriptions software, personal data and information about organizations). The database is maintained in parallel on several servers (in the form of a computer “mirror”) in the UK, USA, Canada, Japan and Russia ( http://repec.org/).
8. Institute for Research in Social Science(IRSS) Public Opinion Questionaire Database (University of North Carolina, USA) stores a large amount of empirical data on public opinion polls collected since 1965 by the famous polling firm Louis Harris and Associates, Inc. Any researcher from any part of the globe can contact via the Internet, view questionnaires, statistical distributions of national surveys ( http://www.ciesin.org/datasets/irss/irss.html).
9. International Institute of Social History(International Institute Social History, IISH) 15 is one of the world's largest archival and research institutions in the field of social history and the largest in the field of labor history and the labor movement. The official opening took place in 1935 in Amsterdam, although the history of its creation goes back to the 1920s. Nikolaas W. Posthumus (1880-1960), one of the pioneers of modern economic history in the Netherlands, founded the Netherlands Archives of Economic History (NAEI) in 1914, the purpose of which was to preserve the archives of companies and firms, collections of sources related to economic history, including documents from personal collections and archives of organizations of the Dutch labor movement. Soon his archive grew to such a scale that it required expansion of premises and a change in official status. Cooperation with the insurance company De Centrale made it possible to strengthen the financial position and give the personal collection the status of an independent scientific institute. In 1935-1940 the focus was on rescuing archives across Europe. The most important acquisition of this period was the archival legacy of Marx and Engels. Then, almost smuggled out of Austria, they managed to take out Bakunin’s manuscripts and transport the libraries and archives of the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries who fled from Russia. Already at that time, the library alone already contained more than 300,000 titles. In the 1960s and 1970s. The development of the Institute was facilitated by a growing interest in the history of social ideas and movements. IISH continued its work to rescue the archives and libraries of persecuted individuals and organizations. So, in the 1970s. Amsterdam is home to materials from Latin America. Similarly, in the late 1980s, measures were taken to preserve the records of Turkish parties, trade unions and individual citizens. Since 1979, the Institute has joined the system of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Sciences and Arts. The Institute conducts active research and educational work, implements oral history projects, trying to fill the lack of written sources on social history in various regions of the world 16 . Today, IISH holds 2,500 archival collections, 1 million volumes of printed information and about 1 million units of audiovisual documents.
The 2002 UN 17 official report recognized IISH's experience with documentary information as exemplary. In 1994, the International Institute of Social History is a research institution whose mission is to collect and archive materials on social
15 Official website: http://www.iisg.nl/iish.html
16 Information from the website: http://www.iisg.nl/iisg/historyru.html
"United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. 164 EX/21. Paris, 9 April 2002 // http://www.ruj.ru/unescomlO.htm
social history, decided to collect online documents on politics, social issues and environmental problems. The unique nature of their collection methodology is that it also covers “news groups”, with 900,000 messages from 974 “news groups” collected to date, all accessible via the Internet.
10.Internet Archive, which was established in 1996 as a private, non-profit entity, collects publicly available web pages around the world and currently stores more than 10 billion web pages or 100 terabytes of information (5 times the volume of all materials available in the Library Congress). In October 2001, the Internet Archive launched a program called the Wayback Machine, which provides free access to archives throughout the web.
11.Bureau of Applied Sociological Research(Bureau of Applied Social Research - BASR) - collection of survey data general, held in the USA. The founder of the Bureau is P. Lazarsfeld. When BASR ceased to exist in 1977, its archives and books were transferred to the library of Columbia University, where it existed for 40 years. During this time, a huge database was created: information about 1100 was stored in electronic archive files. research projects; 750 scientific articles prepared by Bureau staff. In addition, the Columbia University Library has many other interesting archives, including: (1) Human Relations Area Files (HRAF) Collection of Ethnography - a huge database (more than 400 items) of full-text materials about sociocultural, ethnographic and national groups from all over the world , the catalog contains 900 thematic categories 18 ; (2) Post-Soviet Nationalities Collection 19 is the largest information database about the USSR in the USA, on the basis of which the best Sovietological research in the country was formed at one time scientific school, includes more than 21 thousand monographs and periodicals relating to various aspects of life of all ethnic groups inhabiting Russia.
12.Library of international sociological data and help desk. Survey Research Center, University of California, Berkeley (International Data Library and Reference Service, Survey Research Center, University of California, Berkeley) - large collection of survey results conducted outside the United States, mainly in Asia and Latin America.
13.Lewis Harris Center for Political Science Data University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill (Louis Harris Political Data Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill), - a collection of polling results conducted in the United States by the Louis Harris Public Opinion Polling Agency.
14.Public Opinion Research Center in the USA, University of Chicago, Chicago (National Opinion Research Center, University of Chicago, Chicago), - a collection of survey results conducted by this center in the USA, contains subsections on a number of social problems.
15.Roper Center(Roper Public Opinion Research Center, Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts) 20, - the world's largest archive of sociological
Library website: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/libraries/indexes/hraf-ethnography.html Collection website: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/slavic/nationalities.html Official website: http://www.ropercenter.uconn.edu/
ical data containing the results of surveys in different countries and on a wide range of issues. Elmo Roper founded his center immediately after the Second World War, in 1947. George Gallup provided him with enormous assistance in the early days. Today, the Center's library stores complete data on several thousand sample public opinion polls from 70 countries. The Center is also one of the world's best institutes for teaching public opinion research. Empirical data for 1972-2000. are released on CD ROM: it contains statistical data on 40,933 respondents for 3,500 variables.
16. University of Essex(old name - ESRC, new UKDA) 21 - the archive of the University of Essex is one of the largest collections of social information in Europe. Under agreements with other institutions, it receives and provides scientific data from all over the world.
15. Australian Social Science Data Archive(Social Science Data Archives, Australian National University) founded in 1981, has a wide computer base on social, economic and political research conducted by academic, government and private organizations ( http://ssda.anu.edu.au/).
In addition to these centers, the Cologne Archive of Sociological Data, the European Archive of Sociological Data, Belgian
Below is a list of the ten largest libraries in the world. The rating was compiled based on the number of documents stored in them.
The National Library of China is the largest library in Asia, located in the capital of China, Beijing. Located in three buildings with a total area of 250,000 square meters. It was founded on September 9, 1909 by the government of the Qing Dynasty. With the collection more than 33.78 million storage units The National Library of China contains the largest collections of Chinese literature and historical documents in the world. Among them, the most valuable are books from the Song and Yuan dynasties, Buddhist manuscripts from Dunhuang, the huge Yongle Dadian encyclopedia and a 35,000-strong collection of turtle shells and bones of various animals on which texts are applied. More than 7 thousand people visit the library every day.
The Royal Danish Library is the largest library in Northern Europe, located in Copenhagen, Denmark. It was founded in 1648 by King Frederick III and opened to the public in 1793. Contains about 35.1 million storage units, including 6.4 million books and magazines, 19.9 million engravings and photographs, 7.8 million brochures and other historical materials. Copies of all works published in Denmark since the 17th century are kept here, including the first Danish book, printed in 1482.
The National Diet Library is the central government library of Japan, located in Tokyo. It was founded in 1948 and was originally intended for members of the Japanese Diet. It collects and stores all publications ever published in the country. Library Archives Count (2008) 34 million documents, of which 9 million books (6.5 million in Japanese and 2.5 million in foreign languages), 12 million periodicals (including 3.9 million newspapers), 200 thousand CDs, 420 thousand maps and others.
The Russian National Library is the oldest public library in Eastern Europe. It was founded in 1795 by Catherine II and opened to the public on January 3, 1814. Located in St. Petersburg. As of 2012, the library's collections contain 36,500,000 copies, of which 28 million are in Russian. Among the most valuable: handwritten books of the Ostromir Gospel, “Izbornik”, Laurentian Chronicle and other rare publications.
The National Library of France is one of the oldest and largest libraries in the world. Located in Paris. It was founded by Charles V in 1368, expanded by King Louis XIV and opened to the public in 1692. Its funds contain approximately 40 million documents these include 12 million books, about 115,000 manuscripts and other items. The total length of the library shelves reaches 395 km. It employs about 2,700 employees.
The Russian State Library is the largest library in the country and one of the largest in the world. It was founded on July 1, 1862. Located in Moscow. Has more than 275 km of shelves with more than 43 million storage units, including 17 million books, 13 million magazines, 350 thousand musical scores and sound recordings, 150 thousand maps and other documents.
The New York Public Library is an American library that houses one of the finest collections of books in the world. It opened in 1895 and has 87 branches in Manhattan, the Bronx and Staten Island. The New York Public Library collection includes 51.3 million storage units, of which more than 20 million are books. It employs about 3,100 people.
Library and Archives Canada is Canada's federal archival institution, which includes the national library and the government archives. The department was created in 2004. The headquarters is located in downtown Ottawa. About 54 million documents, including 20 million books, more than 24 million photographs, and more than a petabyte of digital data.
The Library of Congress is the US national library located in Washington. It was founded on April 24, 1800. Located in three buildings in which it is stored more than 142 million various types of documents, including more than 29 million books, 58 million manuscripts, 4.8 million maps and atlases, 12 million photographs, 500 thousand films, etc. Among the most valuable: The Gutenberg Bible, the first book published in the United States - The Massachusetts Book of Psalms (1640), the smallest book in the world - Old King Cole, also contains the private libraries of Hitler, Susan Brownell Anthony, Theodore Roosevelt. The total length of the shelves of the Library of Congress is 856 km. It is included in the list of the most beautiful libraries in the world.
The British Library is the national library of Great Britain, which opened in London on July 1, 1973. It is the largest library in the world. Its archives contain 170 million various publications from many countries around the world, in many languages and in various formats, including (as of 2012) 66.3 million patents, 14.3 million books, 8.3 million philatelic materials, 4.5 million maps, 1, 6 million sheet music editions, 1.5 million sound discs, more than 787,700 serial publications, 357,986 manuscripts, etc.
- the largest English-language archive on the Internet. Among thousands e-books and documents it is easy to get lost, but with skillful use this site turns into a powerful tool in the work of an architect.
Pros. The archive is truly huge: 30,000 results in search results for the query “architecture” alone. Most publications can be downloaded without registration (we will discuss cases when it is still required below). Registration is simple, just enter your email address, login, password and confirm the data in the letter.
Cons. It’s like in a real library - some books (they are marked with the “Borrow” button) cannot be taken away forever, but can be read for 14 days. If someone has already purchased the publication you are interested in, you will be asked to sign up for a waiting list. When the book is available again, you will receive a notification by email. Bibliographer Jessamyn West associates the complex system with the peculiarities of American legislation and an attempt to maintain the culture of public libraries.
We spent several days in the archives and selected interesting books in five blocks, so that it is useful both at work and at home:
1. Bureau and architects
The Making of Zaha Hadid
FBI dossier
One day a designer came to Philip Johnson. He was busy renovating the interior, and at the same time he was recording conversations and the titles of books that the architect was reading. The designer was an FBI informant.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation became interested in Johnson because of his short-lived Nazi sympathies. An extensive dossier of 150 pages was compiled on him, which is now available to any user.
2. Details
Thousands of pages covering everything from typical construction to complex glass domes.
80 worked knots
The book Architectural Detailing: Function, Constructibility, Aesthetics - 300 pages of drawn details with simple, clear explanations (albeit in English) from a teacher at MIT, the best architectural school in the world.
Designing natural light
Daylighting Natural Light in Architecture is a 200-page work on the interaction between architecture and daylight. The main part is devoted to the specifics of natural lighting in offices, residential buildings, hospitals, etc. A separate, very first chapter talks about how this approach has changed over the centuries. One of the indisputable advantages of the book is the many examples of completed buildings.
They will also be useful
- 400 pages of details: Building Construction Illustrated
- Construction Basics: How Buildings Work
- Masonry: Masonry Construction Manual
- Tree: Detail. Timber Construction
- Glazing: Glass Structures
3. Practice
Architectural Bible: Neufert
The most readable book in the collection Folkscanomy: Architecture - the classic work of Ernst Neufert, assistant to Walter Gropius. The work, known to Russian-speaking readers as “Building Design,” contains detailed diagrams, drawings and descriptions of ergonomic and construction standards.
Architect's handbook
If Neufert’s book examines specifics, the Architects’ Handbook gives a general idea of the typology of various structures and the design features of each of them. The buildings are arranged alphabetically from A (Airports) to Z (Zoos and Aquariums).
Management in architecture
The author of Managing Quality in Architecture tried to answer the question: how to make architecture as high quality as possible, but without sacrificing relationships with colleagues and the customer. The book is structured into paragraphs depending on the stages of design and implementation. The text is diluted with comics.
4. Theory and history of architecture
In addition to the classic Vitruvius and Palladio (the latter in the original language), the site also contains modern books with analysis of the past from architecture and structures.
Graphic history of architecture
The Graphic History of Architecture succinctly shows the forms and varieties of world architecture throughout human history. 115 pages contain plans of iconic buildings, the evolution of orders and brief descriptions directions. The publication cannot be called exhaustive, but it is suitable for students of architectural universities as a cheat sheet. The book begins with buildings Ancient Egypt and ends with the twentieth century - the Kennedy Airport terminal and Frank Lloyd Wright's unrealized Key Project.
History of structures: Structure and Architecture
The author of Structure and Architecture explains the basic principles of design in architecture and how these designs are applied to modern and historic buildings.
5. Inspiration
There are quite a lot of books in the archive, which contain successful, but not the best famous examples modern buildings. One of the obvious advantages is that in addition to photographs and descriptions, you often come across plans and drawings.
New approaches to reconstruction
The publication New concept in renovating contains examples of a creative approach to reconstruction without compromising the historical heritage.
23.03.2013
Large libraries. Library comes from the French word Librarie and the Latin word Liber which means books. For many centuries before the advent of modern gadgets, people received various information of interest from libraries. Nowadays, information can be obtained in sufficient quantities from various sources, including the Internet, libraries have become less popular, but true connoisseurs of books and useful, historical information would still rather go to the library than read from a monitor. Large large libraries They preserve simply a huge number of books, both modern and very ancient. This top 10 rating largest libraries in the world, which store within their walls a huge number of books and historical documents.
10. Library of the Institute of Scientific Information of the Russian Academy of Sciences
(Moscow, 14.2 million storage units)
It has the status of a library of federal significance. Designed for library and information and reference and bibliographic services for scientific workers of the Russian Academy of Sciences, others scientific institutions, teachers of higher education, graduate and undergraduate students. The repository contains materials on various scientific disciplines, the largest collection of books in Slavic languages, collections of documents of the League of Nations, other international organizations, parliamentary reports of the USA, England, Italy and other countries. Conducts an international book exchange with 874 partners in 69 countries.
9. Harvard University Library
(Cambridge, 16 million items)
Created in 1638 The main goal is to support scientific research and organize student training. The largest academic library in the United States. In addition to the central book collection, it has separate branches: a library of rare books and manuscripts, a medical library, and a Chinese-Japanese library. Funds multiple scientific projects mainly by university teachers and students.
8. German National Library
(Frankfurt am Main, Leipzig, Berlin, over 25 million storage units)
This large library founded in 1912 by the Kingdom of Saxony, Leipzig, as the venue for the annual book fair, and the Association of German Booksellers. The main task of this institution is to collect, archive and store all available materials in German from around the world. Plays a major role in the development of international library standards. The annual budget is 42.2 million euros. The highest technologies for storing printed materials are used. It is distinguished by a wide variety of collection items. The Berlin branch specializes in collectibles musical works. The reading rooms are open to the public.
7. Library of the Russian Academy of Sciences
(St. Petersburg, more than 26 million storage units)
Founded by decree of Peter I in 1714. The first state public library of Russia. The fund was based on the collections of the Kremlin Royal Library in Moscow, the personal collections of Peter I, the libraries of the Dukes of Holstein and Courland, and gifts from the Tsar’s associates. She was and is the initiator of various scientific expeditions. Such valuable manuscripts as the Ipatiev and Radziwill Chronicles are kept here. The library suffered enormous damage from a fire in 1988. More than 400 thousand books were lost. In the first 10 years after the fire, only about 900 volumes were restored.
6. National Library and Archives of Canada
(Ottawa, over 26 million units)
Large library created by the Parliament of Canada in 2004. First of all, materials related to history, culture, social and political life countries. In addition to traditional materials, it contains indigenous magazines, scrapbooks, architectural sketches, comics magazines, and trade catalogs. Known for its collection of musical scores and sound recordings. The Library Director holds the rank of Deputy Minister and holds the title of Librarian and Archivist of Canada. The library building is recognized as a historical heritage.
5. National Library of China
(Beijing, over 27.8 million units)
Founded by the Qing Dynasty in 1909. This is the main library of the People's Republic of China and the largest library in Asia. Located in three buildings with a total area of 250 thousand sq.m. It is geographically divided into the “Northern Region of the National Library of China” and the “Southern Region of the National Library of China”. It houses the largest number of Chinese books in the world and the largest number of foreign publications in the country.
4. Russian State Library
(Moscow, more than 44 million storage units)
Year of foundation: 1862. Largest public library countries. It is a place for storing legal copies of printed materials. Headquarters of the Eurasian Library Assembly. In addition to the general fund, it has many specialized collections. Unique copies: the Arkhangelsk Gospel, the Khitrovo Gospel, editions of the first Slavic printers, collections of incunabula and paleotypes, first editions of Russian classics. The annual budget is 1.64 million rubles. Open to visitors, including foreign citizens.
3. New York Public Library
(New York, 53 million units)
The Great Library was founded in 1895. A private non-profit organization with a public mission. Attracts both private and government funding. Its branches are located in Manhattan, the Bronx and Staten Island. Central Fund – Library of the Humanities and Social Sciences. In addition, it includes the Library of Science, Industry and Business, the Library of the Performing Arts, the Center for African American Studies and Culture, the Library of People with disabilities and others. Serves approximately 18 million visitors annually.
2. British Library
(London, 150 million items)
Created by the British Parliament in 1972. The library's rich collection is constantly growing, as it is automatically replenished with every copy of printed material published in the country. In terms of the number of storage units, it is second only to the US Library of Congress. It has such unique copies as: Buddhist manuscripts from Dunhuang, the Lindisfar Gospel, the world's only manuscript of the epic "Beowulf", manuscripts of Leonardo da Vinci, Codex Sinaiticus, the first printed map of the New World and many others. Serves up to 16 thousand people per day.
1. Library of Congress
(Washington, over 155 million items)
Holds the title the largest library peace. This scientific library is intended for government and scientific organizations, research centers, private firms, industrial companies, and schools. Founded on April 24, 1800 by decree of US President John Adams. Initially, only the President, Vice President, members of the US Senate and the House of Representatives (Congress) could access the collections, hence the name of the library. Funds are universal. The materials on law, history, politics, natural and technical sciences and reference literature are most fully presented. Contains more than 30 million books and other printed materials in more than 470 languages, 58 million manuscripts, 4.8 million maps, 12 million photographs. Since 1987, James Billington has been the director of the library. Currently, access to storage facilities has been expanded, but still has serious limitations.
However, in addition to large libraries and very.
