Achievements of the culture of ancient Rus' table. Achievements of Rus' in the field of culture

Culture of Rus' in the 10th and early 13th centuries.

Before political fragmentation, the culture of Rus' was oriented towards the West; much was received from Byzantium. Culture developed both within Rus' itself and under the influence of neighboring states. As today, villages and villages have had the hardest time developing culturally.

The adoption of Christianity had a great influence on the change in the culture of Rus', but paganism did not completely disappear for many years. We remember that even today we celebrate holidays that are essentially pagan.

Peculiarities

Writing, literacy, schools

11th century, translated works become widespread

"Alexandria" - the life of Alexander the Great

“The Deed of Devgenis” - about the exploits of the warrior Digenis

Izbornik Svyatoslav 1073 - a collection of folk moralizing discussions.

Baking trays – copies of documents.

Tolmach is a translator.

Parchment is processed calf or lamb skin for writing.

Writing - 10th century

Archaeologist D.V. Avdusin in 1949 found a clay vessel from the 10th century with the inscription “gorushna” - spice

The find makes it clear that writing in Rus' existed already in the 10th century. In the 9th century, the Cyrillic alphabet was compiled - the first Russian alphabet (Cyril and Methodius).

Literacy – 11th century

Schools were opened at churches and monasteries already under Vladimir I and Yaroslav the Wise.

Vladimir Monomakh’s sister, Yanka, opened a school for girls from wealthy families at the convent.

Schools were common only in cities, but at that time all segments of the population could study in them.

Graffiti is inscriptions scratched on the walls of churches. These were reflections on life, complaints and prayers.

Chronicles

End of the 10th century

The first chronicle (from Rurik to St. Vladimir, not preserved)

The chronicle is a weather account of events.

The chronicle is a state matter, appeared immediately after the introduction of Christianity in Rus'. Chronicles were written and rewritten, as a rule, by clergy.

The era of Yaroslav the Wise and Sofia in Kyiv

Second chronicle (included the first + some new materials, not preserved)

60-70s XI century - Hilarion

He wrote it under the name of the monk Nikon

90s of the 11th century

The next vault appeared during the time of Svyatopolk

XII century (1113) – monk Nestor

“The Tale of Bygone Years” is the first chronicle that has come down to us, which is why it is considered to be the first in Rus'.

It was an unusual chronicle; it acquired a philosophical and religious overtones and included, in addition to a colorful description of events, the chronicler’s reasoning

Architecture

Tithe Church

Built by Greek craftsmen, the first Russian church. wooden

Church of Hagia Sophia in Kyiv

Church of Hagia Sophia in Novgorod

Church of St. Sophia in Polotsk

Spaso-Preobrazhensky Cathedral in Chernigov

Golden Gate in Kyiv

All buildings have a cross-dome shape, which came to Rus' from Byzantium after baptism, as well as the stone construction itself.

Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1160)

White stone palace in Bogolyubovo

Golden Gate in Vladimir

Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (1165, single-dome)

St. George's Cathedral of the Yuryev Monastery (1119)

Church of the Savior Nereditsa near Novgorod (1198)

Demetrius Cathedral in Vladimir (1197)

St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky

Church of Paraskeva Friday in Chernigov

Spaso-Preobrazhensky Cathedral of the St. Euphrosyne Monastery in Polotsk (1159, architect John)

Pagan (wooden construction):

1) multi-tiered buildings;

2) the buildings are crowned with turrets and towers;

3) artistic wood carving;

4) the presence of extensions (cages).

Scheme of a single-domed, single-tier temple.

Christian (stone construction) – cross-domed churches:

1) the base is a square divided by 4 pillars;

2) rectangular cells adjacent to the under-dome space form an architectural cross.

Another feature of Russian architecture of that time was the combination of structures with the natural landscape.

Architecture - architecture.

Literature

40th XI century, Hilarion

"A Word on Law and Grace"

The place of Rus' in world history is outlined. The first literary author.

Folklore

The word “About Igor’s Campaign” is the unsuccessful campaign of Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsians in 1185.

"The Tale of Boris and Gleb"

"The Legend of the Initial Spread of Christianity in Rus'"

Folklore - oral folk art.

11th century, monk Jacob

“Memory and praise to Vladimir”

It is necessary to understand that the Story, Walking, Reading, and Life are genres of Old Russian literature.

XI century, monk Nestor

"Reading about the life of Boris and Gleb"

XII century, Vladimir Monomakh

“Teachings for Children” is a book about what a real prince should be.

12th century, Abbot Daniel

"Hegumen Daniel's Walk to Holy Places"

Daniil Sharpener

"Word" and "Prayer"

12th century, Metropolitan Klimenty Smolyatich

"Message" to Priest Thomas

12th century, Bishop Kirill

"Parable of human soul»

Early 13th century

Kiev-Pechersk Patericon

The history of the foundation of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery and the first monks

Painting

Fresco and mosaic painting

St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv

St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery - mosaic

Fresco – carving on wet plaster.

Mosaic is an image assembled from colored glass pieces.

Iconography XII-XIII

"Angel with golden hair"

"Savior not made by hands"

"Assumption of the Virgin Mary"

"Yaroslavl Oranta"

The icon painter Alimpiy was famous

K. P. Bryullov (1799-1852)

"The Last Day of Pompeii"

"The Appearance of the Messiah" - Theotokos

folklore

Lutes, harps - instruments

Buffoons, singers, dancers

Pagan traditions

Songs, tales, epics, proverbs, sayings

Life of the people.

Jewelry techniques for gold and silver were widespread (bracelets, earrings, buckles, tiaras, even dishes were decorated with precious stones and metals). The wood carving was most beautiful. Feasts with honey and wine among princes and warriors. Falconry, hawk hunting, and hound hunting were considered fun. Races were held.

Russians loved the bathhouse very much.

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Table. Culture of Rus' from ancient times to the end of the 17th century.

Ancient Rus' XIII-XV centuries. XVI centuries. XVII centuries.

Literacy, writingCreation of the Slavic alphabet (missionary monks Cyril and Methodius), monasteries - educational and scientific centers, library and school of Yaroslav the Wise1073 – Ostromir Gospel1076 – Mstislav Gospel

Literacy was quite widespread in medieval Rus'. 14th century – the appearance of paper (from Europe). The solemn “charter” letter was replaced by a quicker half-charter. Late 15th century - cursive writing.1) Growing need for literate people2) education was primary, of a church character, inaccessible (obtained in monasteries, at home, theological disciplines were studied in religious works)3) Writing - on paper in “cursive writing”1553 - printing, 1563 - 1st printing house of Ivan Fedorov, 1564 – the first printed book – “Apostle”, 1565 – “Book of Hours”, 1574 – 1st primer (in Lviv)

Rapid development of the education system6 primary schools, special schools. School in the German settlement; growth of printed products, creation of state (Polish order) and private (Ordina-Nashchokin, Golitsyn) libraries, Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow (1687)1634 - V. Burtsev’s primer1682 - multiplication table printed1665 - school in the Spassky Monastery1649 - school at St. Andrew's Monastery

ChronicleKievo-Pechersk Monastery - the center of the origin of chronicle1073 - ancient code1060 - Chronicle of the monk Nikon193 - initial code (abbot of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra Ivan)1113- Tale of Bygone Years (Nestor)Centers of chronicle writing - Novgorod, Moscow (began under Ivan Kaliit), Tver.Feature -all-Russian character, patriotism, the idea of ​​the unity of Rus'. Trinity Chronicle (early 15th century), Moscow Chronicle Code (late 15th century)

“Front chronicle code” (Nikon Chronicle), “Chronicle of the beginning of the kingdom, chronographs. 30s - “New Chronicler” (last chronicle)

Literature “The Tale of Law and Grace” (Metropolitan Hilarion, 10th century), “The Tale of Boris and Gleb” (1015), Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh (12th century), “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” (·1185), The Prayer of Daniil Zatochnik (12th century), Life of Theodosius of Pechersk (1074), Russian Truth (1016,-1072) Stories: “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land”, “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”, “The Tale of Shavkal”, “Zadonshchina”, The Legend of the Massacre of Mamaev", "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia" "Walking across the Three Seas" Lives of: Alexander Nevsky, Metropolitan Peter, Sergius of Radonezh and others. 1st Russian chronograph (mid 15th century) 40s - Great Fourths - Menaion (Metropolitan Macarius) Ivan Peresvetov – “The Tale of Tsar Constantine”, “The Tale of Mohammed-Saltan”, program

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Culture of Rus' X–XIII centuries: architecture, literature, architecture

Sections: History and Social Studies

The formation and development of ancient Russian culture was inextricably linked with the same historical factors and conditions that influenced the formation of statehood, the development of the economy of Rus', and the political and spiritual life of society. Richest cultural heritage Eastern Slavs, their beliefs, experience, customs and traditions - all this was organically combined with elements of the culture of neighboring countries, tribes and peoples. Rus' did not copy or recklessly borrow someone else's heritage; it synthesized it with its own cultural traditions. The openness and synthetic nature of Russian culture largely determined its originality and originality.

Oral folk art continued to develop even after the appearance of written literature. Russian epic of the 11th – early 12th centuries. enriched with stories dedicated to the fight against the Polovtsians. The image of Vladimir Monomakh, the initiator of the fight against the nomads, merged with the image of Vladimir Svyatoslavich. By the middle of the XII - beginning of the XIII century. This includes the appearance of Novgorod epics about the “guest” Sadko, a wealthy merchant descended from an ancient boyar family, as well as a cycle of tales about Prince Roman, the prototype of which was the famous Roman Mstislavich Galitsky.

Ancient Rus' knew writing even before the official adoption of Christianity. This is evidenced by numerous written sources, such as the agreement between Prince Oleg and Byzantium, and archaeological finds. Around the first half of the 1st millennium AD. e. primitive pictographic writing (“traits” and “cuts”) arose. Later, the Slavs used the so-called Proto-Cyrillic alphabet to write complex texts. The creation of the Slavic alphabet is associated with the names of the Christian missionaries brothers Cyril (Constantine) and Methodius. In the second half of the 9th century. Kirill created the Glagolitic alphabet - the Glagolitic alphabet, and at the turn of the 9th-10th centuries. Based on the Greek letter and elements of the Glagolitic alphabet, the Cyrillic alphabet arose - an easier and more convenient alphabet, which became the only one among the Eastern Slavs.

The Baptism of Rus' at the end of the 10th century. contributed to the rapid development of writing and the spread of literacy. The Slavic language, understandable to the entire population, was used as the language of church services, and as a result of this, its development as a literary language occurred. (In contrast to the Catholic countries of Western Europe, where the language of church services was Latin, and therefore early medieval literature was predominantly Latin.) Liturgical books and religious literature began to be brought to Rus' from Byzantium, Bulgaria, and Serbia. Translated Greek literature of ecclesiastical and secular content appeared - Byzantine historical works, descriptions of travel, biographies of saints, etc. The first handwritten Russian books that have reached us date back to the 11th century. The oldest of them are the “Ostromir Gospel”, written by Deacon Gregory for the Novgorod mayor Ostromir in 1057, and two “Izborniki” by Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich in 1073 and 1076. The highest level of craftsmanship with which these books were made testifies to the existence of traditions of making handwritten books already by this time.

The Christianization of Rus' gave a powerful impetus to the spread of literacy. The “bookish men” were princes Yaroslav the Wise, Vsevolod Yaroslavich, Vladimir Monomakh, Yaroslav Osmomysl.

Highly educated people met among the clergy, among wealthy townspeople and merchants. Literacy was not uncommon among commoners. This is evidenced by inscriptions on handicrafts, church walls (graffiti), and finally, birch bark letters, first discovered during archaeological excavations in Novgorod in 1951, and then in other cities (Smolensk, Pskov, Tver, Moscow, Staraya Russa) . Widespread letters and other documents on birch bark indicate a fairly high level of education of a significant layer of the ancient Russian population, especially in cities and their suburbs.

Old Russian literature arose on the basis of the rich traditions of oral folk art. One of its main genres was chronicle writing - weather reporting of events. Chronicles are the most valuable monuments of the entire spiritual culture of medieval society. The compilation of chronicles pursued very specific political goals and was a matter of state. The chronicler not only described historical events, he had to give them an assessment that met the interests of the prince-customer.

According to a number of scientists, the beginning of chronicle writing dates back to the end of the 10th century. But the oldest chronicle that has come down to us, based on earlier chronicle records, dates back to 1113. It went down in history under the name “The Tale of Bygone Years” and, as is commonly believed, was created by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor. Answering the questions posed at the very beginning of the story (“Where did the Russian land come from, who was the first prince in Kiev, and how did the Russian land begin to exist”), the author unfolds a wide canvas of Russian history, which is understood as an integral part of world history (under the world in those times Biblical and Roman-Byzantine history was implied). The “Tale” is distinguished by the complexity of its composition and the variety of materials included in it; it absorbed the texts of treaties, as if illustrating records of events, retellings of folk legends, historical stories, lives, theological treatises, etc. Later

The Tale of Bygone Years,” in turn, became part of other chronicle collections. From the 12th century a new period begins in the history of Russian chronicles. If earlier the centers of chronicle writing were Kyiv and Novgorod, now, after the fragmentation of the Russian land into many different-sized principalities, chronicles are created in Chernigov, Smolensk, Polotsk, Vladimir, Rostov, Galich, Ryazan and other cities, acquiring a more local, local character.

One of ancient monuments ancient Russian literature is the famous “Sermon on Law and Grace” by the princely priest in Berestov and the future first Russian Metropolitan of Kyiv Hilarion (40s of the 11th century). The content of the “Word” was the substantiation of the state-ideological concept of Ancient Rus', the determination of the place of Rus' among other peoples and states, and its contribution to the spread of Christianity. The ideas of Hilarion’s work were developed in the literary and journalistic monument of the second half of the 11th century. “In memory and praise of Vladimir,” written by the monk Jacob, as well as in “The Tale of Boris and Gleb” - about the first Russian saints and patrons of Rus'.

At the beginning of the 12th century, new literary genres were formed in ancient Russian culture. These are the teachings of walking (travel notes). The most striking examples are the “Instructions for Children”, compiled in his declining years by the Kyiv Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh, as well as the famous “Walking” created by one of his associates, Abbot Daniel, which describes his journey to holy places through Constantinople and Fr. Crete to Jerusalem.

At the end of the 12th century. the most famous of which was created poetic works ancient Russian literature - “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”. The basis of the plot of this small secular work was the description of the unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsians of Novgorod-Seversk Prince Igor Svyatoslavich (1185). The unknown author of the Lay apparently belonged to the druzhina nobility of one of the southern Russian appanage principalities. The main idea of ​​the “Tale” was the need for unity of Russian princes in the face of external danger. At the same time, the author was not a supporter of the state unification of the Russian land; his call was aimed at agreement in actions, to an end to civil strife and princely strife. Apparently, these ideas of the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” did not find a response in the society of that time. Indirect evidence of this is the fate of the manuscript of “The Lay” - it was preserved in the only copy (which was lost during the fire of 1812 in Moscow).

Much more widespread in Rus' was another remarkable work, preserved in two main editions - “The Word”, or “Prayer”, by Daniil Zatochnik (late 12th - first quarter of the 13th century). It was written in the form of an appeal to the prince on behalf of the author - an impoverished princely servant, perhaps a warrior who fell into disgrace. A staunch supporter of strong princely power, Daniil draws perfect image the prince is the protector of his subjects, capable of protecting them from arbitrariness.” strong people”, overcome internal strife and ensure security from external enemies. The brightness of the language, masterful rhyming play on words, an abundance of proverbs, aphorism, and sharply satirical attacks against the boyars and clergy ensured this talented work great popularity for a long time.

Architecture has reached a high level in Rus'. Unfortunately, the monuments of ancient Russian wooden architecture have not survived to this day. Few stone structures survived, since a significant part of them was destroyed during Batu’s invasion. Monumental stone construction began in Rus' at the end of the 19th century, after the adoption of Christianity. The principles of stone construction were borrowed by Russian architects from Byzantium. The first stone building - the Tithe Church in Kyiv (end of the 10th century, destroyed in 1240) was erected by Greek craftsmen. Excavations revealed that it was a powerful structure made of thin brick, decorated with carved marble, mosaics, glazed ceramic slabs, and frescoes.

Under Yaroslav the Wise (probably around 1037), Byzantine and Russian craftsmen erected the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, which has survived to this day (though not in its original form, but significantly rebuilt from the outside). St. Sophia Cathedral is a wonderful monument not only of architecture, but also fine arts. Kiev Sophia is already significantly different from Byzantine examples in the stepped composition of the temple, the presence of thirteen domes crowning it, which was probably reflected in the traditions of Russian wooden architecture. The interior of the temple is decorated with mosaics and frescoes, some of which were apparently created by Russian masters, or, in any case, painted on Russian subjects.

Following the Kyiv Sophia, the St. Sophia Cathedral was built in Novgorod (1045–1050). And although there is a clear continuity between these two architectural monuments, the appearance of Novgorod Sophia already reveals the features of the future Novgorod architectural style. The temple in Novgorod is stricter than the one in Kyiv, it is crowned with five domes, there are no bright mosaics in the interior, but only frescoes, more severe and calm.

From the 12th century started new stage in the development of Russian architecture. Architecture of the 12th–13th centuries. distinguished by less monumental buildings, the search for new simple and at the same time elegant forms, rigor, even stinginess of decoration. In addition, while maintaining the common features of architecture in different centers of Rus', local stylistic features are developed. In general, the architecture of this period is characterized by a combination of local traditions, forms and elements of the Western European Romanesque style borrowed from Byzantium. Particularly interesting buildings from this period have been preserved in Novgorod and in the cities of the Vladimir-Suzdal land.

In Novgorod, princely construction was reduced; boyars, merchants, and residents of this or that street began to act as customers for churches. The last of the princely Novgorod churches is the modest and elegant Church of the Savior on Nereditsa (1198), destroyed during the Great Patriotic War and then restored.

Russian medieval architecture is one of the most striking pages in the cultural history of Rus'. Architectural monuments fill our ideas about the development of culture with living, imaginative content and help us understand many aspects of history that are not reflected in written sources. This fully applies to the monumental architecture of the ancient, pre-Mongol period. As in the Western European Middle Ages, Russian architecture of the X-XIII centuries. was the main type of art, subordinating and including many other types, primarily painting and sculpture. From this time to the present day, brilliant monuments have been preserved, often not inferior in their artistic perfection to the best masterpieces of world architecture. The thunderstorms that swept over Russia, unfortunately, wiped out many architectural monuments from the face of the earth. More than three quarters of the ancient Russian monumental buildings of the pre-Mongol period have not survived and are known to us only from excavations, and sometimes even from their mere mention in written sources. Of course, this made it very difficult to study the history of ancient Russian architecture. Nevertheless, over the past three decades, great strides have been made in this area. They are due to several reasons. First of all, it should be noted the methodological approach, which provides for an analysis of the development of architecture in inextricable connection with the socio-economic and political history of Rus', with the development of Russian culture. It is equally important that, thanks to the wide scope of architectural and archaeological research, the number of monuments involved in study has significantly increased.

Restoration work carried out on many of them made it possible to get closer to understanding the original appearance of the structures, which, as a rule, turned out to be distorted over the long years of existence and operation. It is also very important that architectural monuments are now considered comprehensively, taking into account equally the historical, artistic, and construction-technical aspects. As a result of the successes achieved, it became possible to understand the ways of development of ancient Russian architecture with much greater completeness than before. Not everything in this process is still completely clear, many monuments have not yet been studied, but the overall picture nevertheless emerges quite clearly now.

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Culture of Ancient Rus'

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Culture of Ancient Rus'

Culture of Ancient Rus'.

(9th - first third of the 13th centuries)

The concept of culture is one of the most fundamental in the sciences of man and society. Culture does not exist outside of man, it forms his environment of living and communication, it is formed by human society and at the same time shapes and develops this society. The history of culture is not just the sum of the histories of literature, painting, architecture, music, theater and other types of artistic creativity. This is not a separate part of the history of society, but its entire history from the point of view of cultural development.

1. CULTURE AS A SOCIAL PHENOMENON,

ITS STRUCTURE AND FORMS

1.1. The concept of culture is extremely polysemantic. Currently, there are about a thousand of its definitions, reflecting various concepts. The basic elements of culture exist in two forms - material and spiritual.

1.1.1 Material culture is the totality of material elements created by the labor and genius of man.

1.1.2. The totality of intangible elements forms a spiritual culture, which includes cognitive (intellectual), moral, artistic, legal, religious and other cultures.

1.1.3. Some types of culture cannot be unambiguously attributed only to the material or spiritual realm. Types of culture such as economic, political, ecological or aesthetic permeate its entire system.

1.2. The synthesis of cultures of various peoples inhabiting our planet constitutes world culture. The synthesis of cultures of various social strata and groups of any national society forms a national culture.

1.3. Since any society is not homogeneous, but consists of many groups (national, age, social, professional, etc.), small cultural worlds arise - subcultures (youth subculture, professional, urban, rural, etc. subcultures).

1.4. Being a social phenomenon, culture reflects the problems and contradictions of society.

Marxist-Leninist philosophy, in accordance with the class theory of society, distinguished the culture of the ruling class (feudal, bourgeois) and the culture of the oppressed classes (folk).

The culture of a particular society is differentiated, but the division is not at all along the lines of protecting class interests. Depending on who creates the culture and what its level is, its three forms are distinguished - elite, popular and mass.

1.4.1. Elite, or high, culture is created by representatives of the most educated strata of society or professional creators close to them. It reflects the tastes, interests and ideas of such layers and is created primarily for their consumption.

The perception of high culture, as a rule, requires a certain educational level, but broad social strata can also be its consumers after they have achieved the appropriate level of education. Such a culture is often influenced by the elite culture of other countries, but, at the same time, has folk culture as one of its sources and may have a unique folk character(works by A.S. Pushkin, L.N. Tolstoy, etc.).

The development of high culture is significantly influenced by the state, which sometimes tries to regulate its development in its own interests, which is almost impossible in relation to folk culture.

1.4.2. Popular culture (folklore) is democratic, it is created by anonymous creators who do not have vocational training, with the participation of everyone, is based on the traditions of the area and reflects the basic spiritual values ​​of the people. It includes myths, legends, fairy tales, songs, dances, etc.

1.4.3. Folk culture should not be confused with mass culture. Products popular culture is also intended for the general public and takes into account some of their tastes and needs. Like folk culture, mass culture is publicly available, but unlike it, it is always copyrighted. As a rule, it has less artistic value than elitist and popular, since it is designed to satisfy the immediate needs of people. In most cases, the creators of such works pursue only commercial or propaganda goals. The final formation of mass culture took place in the middle of the 20th century and is associated with the development of the media.

2. Features of Old Russian culture

2.1. General features. Old Russian culture did not develop in isolation, but in constant interaction with the cultures of surrounding peoples and was subordinated general patterns development of medieval culture of Eurasian civilization.

2.1.1. Religion, which determined the morality of society, the entire picture of the world of that era, including people’s ideas about power, time, etc., had a significant influence on the cultural life of all peoples.

2.1.3. This period was characterized by the process of accumulation of knowledge, in the absence of scientific analysis.

2.2. The culture of Kievan Rus was based on the centuries-old history of the development of the culture of the Eastern Slavs. It was in the era of Slavic antiquity that the beginnings of Russian spirituality, language, and culture as a whole were laid.

2.3. Foreign influences (Scandinavian, Byzantine, and later Tatar-Mongolian) had a significant influence on the development of ancient Russian culture, which does not detract from its originality and independence.

2.4. The culture of Kievan Rus was not formed as a result of a mechanical combination of elements different cultures, but as a result of their synthesis.

2.4.1. The basis of this synthesis was the pagan culture of the East Slavic tribes.

2.4.2. The second most important component was the Christian culture of Byzantium. The adoption of Orthodoxy in 988 from Byzantium predetermined its influence on all areas of Russian culture and at the same time opened up broader prospects for the development of contacts with Europe, thus giving a powerful impetus to the development of culture as a whole.

3. WRITING AND EDUCATION

3.1. Writing in Rus' appeared long before the adoption of Christianity. There are references to the fact that the ancient Slavs used knotted and knotted-hieroglyphic writing, but due to its complexity it was accessible only to a select few.

3.2. The widespread spread of literacy is associated with the activities in the second half of the 9th century of the brothers Constantine (who took monasticism under the name Cyril before their death) and Methodius, who created the first Slavic alphabet for the dissemination of Christian sacred texts. The first examples of the use of this letter that have survived to this day date back to the beginning of the 10th century. The 911 treaty between Oleg and Byzantium was written in two languages ​​- Greek and Slavic. The adoption of Christianity contributed to the further development of writing and education.

The oldest Slavic texts are written in two alphabets: Glagolitic and Cyrillic.

3.2.1. Glagolitic, according to most scientists, has an earlier origin. It was probably created by Cyril the Philosopher, who used not only Byzantine (Greek) cursive writing, but also Hebrew and other eastern alphabets, as well as letters of his own invention. Monuments where the Glagolitic alphabet is used are written in a more archaic language. Cyrillic insertions into them were made later. On scratched Glagolitic tests (lambskin parchment was expensive and often used several times) there are inscriptions in Cyrillic, but never vice versa.

3.2.2. The Cyrillic alphabet was based only on the Greek solemn (statutory) letter. Sounds that were absent in the Greek language are indicated by signs stylized as Greek letters, similar to the Glagolitic alphabet, from which they were probably borrowed. The Cyrillic alphabet contains a number of letters denoting sound combinations that appeared among the Slavs from the end of the 9th century. and strangers to Kirill. According to scientists, the Cyrillic alphabet was created by the students of Cyril and Methodius in Bulgaria, where the Greek alphabet had previously been used to record Slavic speech, and the Glagolitic alphabet never took root.

Name of St. Kirill remained in the memory of the Slavs as the name of the creator of the Slavic alphabet in general and later switched to the rapidly spreading letter created after the death of the brothers. The forgotten Glagolitic alphabet went down in history under the name that the ancient Slavs used to call any alphabet.

3.3. The spread of literacy among various layers of ancient Russian society is evidenced by Novgorod birch bark letters of the 11th century, containing household records of character, letters, etc., as well as numerous inscriptions on handicraft products and on the walls of stone buildings - graffiti.

3.4. The first schools. Despite the fairly widespread spread of literacy (birch bark letters and graffiti came from the hands of artisans, merchants, and women), education was a privilege of the upper classes of society, for whose children the first schools were opened in the 11th century. More than three hundred children studied at the Kyiv school opened by Yaroslav the Wise. The sister of Vladimir Monomakh created a convent in Kyiv, in which girls were taught to read and write. Higher-type schools also appeared, preparing for state and church service. The princes and part of the clergy owned foreign languages. Monasteries and princes collected libraries that were significant for those times.

4. Oral folk art and the formation of ancient Russian writing

4.1. The appearance of written literature in Rus' was preceded by the development of oral folk art, which largely predetermined its ideological orientation and artistic features. Particularly widespread were conspiracies and spells, calendar ritual songs, epics (antiques), proverbs, sayings, and riddles. The Old Russian epic reflects the spiritual values ​​of the people, their traditions, features of life, real historical events. The affectionate Prince Vladimir the Red Sun became the hero of many epics.

4.2. Old Russian written literature was born among the upper strata of society. The books were handwritten. Until the 15th century, the material for writing was parchment, made from specially dressed calfskin. They wrote in ink or cinnabar until the 19th century. used goose feathers. Many books were decorated with miniatures, and the binding of the most valuable ones was bound in gold and decorated with precious stones and enamel (Ostromir Gospel of the 11th century and Mstislav Gospel of the 12th century). The books were very expensive and were available only to a select few.

All ancient Russian literature is divided into translated and original.

4.2.1. Translation occupied an important place in the literature of Kievan Rus and was considered as part of national literature. The choice of translated works was determined by the influence of the church on ancient Russian literature: the Holy Scriptures, the works of John Chrysostom, Cyril of Jerusalem and other early Christian authors.

Also translated historical works and chronicles.

4.2.2. Original ancient Russian literature is represented by the following main genres: chronicles, hagiography, words (teachings), walks and historical stories.

Chronicle writing occupies a central place among the genres of ancient Russian literature. Chronicles are weather (by summer) records created on the basis of historical legends and songs, official sources, and eyewitness memories. Monks who underwent special training were engaged in chronicle writing. Chronicles were usually compiled on behalf of a prince or bishop, sometimes on the personal initiative of the chronicler.

The oldest Russian chronicle is the Tale of Bygone Years, compiled on the basis of no longer preserved earlier chronicles and oral traditions. Its author is considered to be the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor and dates back to 1113. The Tale of Bygone Years has reached us in handwritten copies no older than the 14th century. The most famous of them are the Laurentian and Ipatiev Chronicles. The main idea of ​​the work is the unity and greatness of the Russian land. From the 12th century Chronicles of local feudal centers flourished.

Life (hagiography) is a biography of famous clergy and secular figures canonized by the Christian Church (the life of Princes Boris and Gleb, etc.)

A word (teaching, speech) is a work belonging to the genre of eloquence. Two varieties of this genre have become widespread in Rus' - solemn eloquence and moralizing eloquence. The oldest monument of solemn eloquence is the Sermon on Law and Grace, which is attributed to the first Metropolitan of Kyiv Hilarion (second quarter of the 11th century). The Word is the first known original work created by a Russian author - it is an ecclesiastical and political treatise that substantiates the significance of the adoption of Christianity for Rus' and glorifies the Russian land and its princes.

A striking example of moralizing eloquence is the Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh (1096 or 1117), which is a kind of political and moral testament of the Grand Duke of Kyiv with elements of autobiography.

A special group of monuments of ancient Russian literature consists of walking (walking) - a type of travel literature. Their main purpose is to tell about Christian shrines and attractions, but they also contain information about nature, climate, and customs of other countries. One of the most famous works of this genre - Hegumen Daniel's Walk to Palestine.

The most famous literary monument of pre-Mongol Rus' is the Lay of Igor's Campaign (late 12th century) calling for the unity of the Russian lands, opposing strife, contrasting two states of humanity - peace and war. The originality of the Tale of Igor's Campaign made it difficult to identify as a genre. It is called an epic or lyric poem, historical story, a political treatise. According to UNESCO, the 800th anniversary of this monument of ancient Russian literature was celebrated throughout the world as a significant date in the history of world culture.

By the beginning of the 13th century. As a result of the creative development of the achievements of Byzantine literature and their rethinking in accordance with the national traditions of oral creativity, a unique ancient Russian literature emerged. In almost every genre, original works were created that were not inferior to Byzantine models and did not copy them. The presence of works that stand outside genre systems (Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh, The Lay of Igor’s Campaign) indicates an intense creative search domestic authors.

5. ARCHITECTURE

The surviving architectural monuments testify to the high level of construction technology, the skill of painters, subtle artistic taste and the personal architectural style of folk craftsmen.

5.1. Wooden architecture. Excavations and studies have shown that until the end of the 10th century. There was no monumental stone architecture in Rus'. The buildings were wooden or wooden-earth.

From the end of the 10th century. widespread construction of religious buildings, churches and monasteries begins. Initially, all these buildings were wooden: the 13-domed Sophia of Novgorod, built in 989, the temple of Boris and Gleb from the beginning of the 11th century. in Vyshgorod.

5.2. Stone construction begins at the end of the 10th century.

5.2.1. The first stone structures were built under the guidance of Byzantine masters, which largely determined the choice of the type of religious buildings and the principles of temple construction. The cross-domed church that developed in the architecture of Byzantium (see diagram) became the predominant type of Orthodox church in Rus': four, six or more pillars (pillars, 2 in the diagram) in the plan formed a cross, above which a dome rose (1). In the eastern part of the building (altar, 3)) services were performed. The altar was separated from the church hall, where the believers were, by a low barrier (5), decorated with fabrics and icons. Subsequently, the number of icons in the altar barrier increased, and an iconostasis took its place. In the western part there was a balcony - choir (4), where the prince and his family and his entourage were present during the service.

The composition of the interior of an Orthodox church organically includes a strictly developed, canonical system of paintings and mosaics, subordinate to the structure of the building and the symbolism of its parts.

At the beginning of the 11th century. Byzantine and Russian builders at the same time erected the largest cross-domed churches: St. Sophia Cathedrals in Kyiv (1037), and Novgorod (1052) and the Transfiguration Cathedral in Chernigov (1036).

5.2.2. Secular buildings. At the same time as the temples, princely palaces, boyar chambers and fortresses were built of stone, but to a much smaller extent. The Golden Gate in Kyiv (11th century) became an outstanding monument of civil engineering.

5.3. Features of Russian architecture. Russian masters, having borrowed the principles of Byzantine stone construction and taking the cross-dome composition as a basis, introduced elements of Russian wooden architecture into it, giving the temples multi-domed and pyramidal, towerlike appearance. The trends of creative rethinking of the Byzantine temple system and independent architectural search intensified at the end of the 12th century. in connection with the rapid development of ancient Russian cities. Around the temples they began to build one-story tomb galleries and create public meeting places.

5.4. In the 12th century In accordance with local conditions (construction and artistic traditions, peculiarities of building materials), local architectural schools emerged, opening the way for folk craftsmanship.

5.4.1. Vladimir-Suzdal architecture is distinguished by pronounced decorative trends, which intensified by the 13th century. Its distinctive feature is the openwork stone carvings on the facades of churches. The most significant buildings include the Assumption Cathedral on the river. Klyazma, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, Dmitrievsky Cathedral in Vladimir and St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky, which contemporaries compared to a precious carved ivory casket. A remarkable monument of military-defensive architecture is the Golden Gate in Vladimir.

5.4.2. Distinctive features The Novgorod and Pskov architectural styles were strict, simple in form, and sparse in decorative ornaments. Particular attention was paid to the construction of fortresses on these lands. The most striking monuments of Novgorod include St. George's Cathedral in the Yuryev Monastery and the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa. One of the earliest stone structures in Pskov is the Transfiguration Cathedral of the Mirozhsky Monastery.

5.4.3. At the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th centuries. The most intensive construction was in Smolensk, which ranks third in terms of the number of monuments of the pre-Mongol period after Kyiv and Novgorod. The development of Smolensk architecture is associated with the invitation to the Smolensk region of Chernigov craftsmen, who organized a local construction artel. Smolensk buildings are distinguished by high quality brickwork. Better than other monuments of the 12th century. The Church of Peter and Paul has been preserved.

6. Fine arts

6.1. Old Russian fine art developed under the significant influence of the Christian religion and was closely connected with religious construction. The interior walls of the temples were richly decorated with frescoes, mosaics, and icons.

6.1.1. Fresco - painting with water paints on wet plaster. The first frescoes were painted by Greek masters. The study of surviving fragments of frescoes of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv leads to the conclusion about the influence of Russian masters on their Byzantine teachers. The main theme of the frescoes is images of saints and gospel scenes, but there are also frescoes depicting secular persons (sons and daughters of Yaroslav the Wise) and everyday scenes (hunting, performances of buffoons).

6.1.2. Mosaic (shimmering painting) as a form of fine art was known in Kyiv in the 10th-11th centuries. The mosaic technique was also brought to Rus' by Byzantine masters. The image was typed from smalt - a special glassy material. In the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, a mosaic depicting a huge figure of Our Lady Oranta has been preserved. Unlike Byzantium, where mosaic images took a dominant position in the system of pictorial decoration of churches, in Rus' mosaics were used mainly to decorate works of decorative art. applied arts, but as a type of monumental art has not received wide distribution. After the 12th century mosaic technology was almost never used in Russian churches.

6.1.3. Icons were a necessary attribute of temples. The first icons in Rus' appear in the 10th century. They were brought to Rus' by the Greeks from Byzantium, and Russian icon painting was influenced by the Byzantine school. The most revered icon in Rus' was the image of the Mother of God with a baby in her arms (Our Lady of Vladimir), made by an unknown Greek painter at the turn of the 11th-12th centuries. But already in the 11th century. Russian master icon painters are achieving great success: Alimpiy, Olisey, George, etc., and in the 12th century. Local icon painting schools are emerging, differing from each other in the manner of execution. The most famous were the Novgorod, Pskov, Yaroslavl, and Kiev schools. Characteristic Features Icon painting, regardless of local traditions, is a flat image, reverse perspective, symbolism of gestures and colors. The main attention was paid to the image of the face and hands. All this was supposed to contribute to the perception of the icon as a divine image.

6.2. The appearance of written monuments led to the emergence of book miniatures. In Ancient Rus', miniature was understood as colorful illustration and they called it a front manuscript. The oldest Russian miniatures are preserved in the Ostromir Gospel, Izbornik Svyatoslav.

Book miniatures and ornaments had many similarities with mosaics, frescoes and jewelry.

6.3. Monumental sculpture did not receive significant development in medieval Rus'. Individual wooden sculptural images of saints were random in nature and were persecuted by the Orthodox Church, as they were reminiscent of pagan idols. Only wood and stone carvings, used to decorate the walls of temples, became widespread. The first secular sculptural monuments were erected in Russia only in the 18th century.

Russian artistic craft received outstanding development in pre-Mongol times. According to calculations by B.A. Rybakov, artisans of more than 60 specialties worked in Russian cities.

Reached exceptional prosperity jewelry art. Jewelry made using the techniques of embossing, filigree, engraving, silver niello, granulation, and cloisonne enamel was in great demand on the world market. Blacksmithing is one of the most developed crafts. IN Western Europe Especially famous were the self-sharpening knives made by Russian blacksmiths and complex locks consisting of more than 40 parts. The production of weapons received significant development: chain mail, sabers, piercing swords. In the XII-XIII centuries. Crossbows and faceted arrows for them appeared. From the middle of the 10th century. The production of bricks, multi-colored ceramics, leather and wood processing items was widely developed.

The development of folk applied art created the basis for further development architecture, painting.

9. MUSIC.

In medieval Rus', three musical directions developed: folk music, liturgical singing and secular singing.

9.1. Folk music. Song folklore and pagan ritual singing, accompanied by playing pipes and tambourines, became widespread in Rus'. harp. In secular music, the emergence of elite forms has not yet occurred, which was facilitated by the love of folk games and festivals. The feasts of the princes, as a rule, were accompanied by dancing, songs, and playing the musical instruments. At many princely courts, buffoons appeared - the first ancient Russian professional actors, combining a singer and a musician. dancer, storyteller, acrobat. The buffoons played the harp, trumpets, horns, pipes, bagpipes, and tambourines. They took part in funerals, weddings, and seasonal festivities of the peasant calendar. The art of buffoons is inextricably linked with ritual song folklore.

9.2. Liturgical singing spread after the adoption of Christianity and immediately became a professional activity. The Orthodox religion does not know how to play musical instruments. At first, Greek and South Slavic singers took part in church services. Gradually, in singing, the distinctive properties inherent only to the ancient Russian peoples became more and more apparent.

10.1. The synthesis of the pagan culture of the Eastern Slavs and the Christian tradition of Byzantium determined the originality of the Russian national culture, contributed to its development.

10.2. Despite the fact that Rus' entered the path of historical development later than other European countries, by the 12th century it had become one of the most culturally developed states of that time.

10.3. XII-XIII centuries characterized by the flourishing of local styles of chronicling, architecture, fine and applied arts, on the basis of which the process of forming a unified national culture began.

In the second half. XVII century Several public schools were established.

1649 – F. Rtishchev’s school (school in St. Andrew’s Monastery).

1640s – school of Epiphany Slavinetsky in the Chudov Monastery,

1665 - the school of Simeon of Polotsk in the Zaikonospassky Monastery there was a school for training employees for central institutions, for the Printing House (Printing School in 1681, headed by the Russian monk Timothy and the Greek Manuil), the Apothecary Prikaz, etc. 1687 the first higher education institution was founded in Moscow educational institution - Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy,where they taught “from grammar, rhetoric, literature, dialectics, philosophy... to theology.” The Academy was headed by the brothers Sophrony and Ioannikiy Likhud (after the exile of the Likhuds in 1701, the Academy fell into decay), Greek scientists who graduated from the University of Padua (Italy). Priests and officials were trained here. M.V. Lomonosov also studied at this academy.

The interest of Russian people in literacy is evidenced by a sale in Moscow(1651) within one day“ABC book” by V. F. Burtsev, published in a circulation of 2,400 copies. Were published“Grammar” by Meletiy Smotritsky(1648) and multiplication table“Counting is convenient” (1682). But: Psalter.

In the 17th century, as before, there was a process of accumulation of knowledge. Great successes were achieved in the field of medicine (“Herbalists”, “Healers”, “Pharmacopeia” by Ivan Venediktov, “On the structure of the human body” - translation by Epiphany Slavinetsky) in solving practical problems in mathematics (many were able to measure areas, distances, loose bodies, etc.), in observing nature.

Age of great geographical discoveries. 1632 - the Cossacks reached the Lena, founded Yakutsk; Elisha Buza discovered Yana, Indigirka, and Kopylov reached the Sea of ​​Okhotsk ( 1639 ). In 1643 Kolesnikov reached Lake Baikal, and Poyarkov discovered the Amur, which was explored in 1650-1651. Khabarov. 1654 The rivers Argun, Selenga and Ingoda were discovered. 1675-1678 . – expedition to China O.N. Spafarius, compiled “Description of the first part of the Universe, called Asia”, “The Legend of the Great Amur River”.

1692-1695 . – Dutchman Isbrant Eades compiled a description of the part of Russia near the border with China. IN 1648 Semyon Dezhnev's expedition (80 years before Vitus Bering) reached the strait between Asia and North America, discovered the river. Anadyr. The easternmost point of our country now bears the name of Dezhnev. E. P. Khabarov in 1649 g . compiled a map and studied the lands along the Amur River, where Russian settlements were founded. The city of Khabarovsk and the village of Erofey Pavlovich bear his name. In the very end of the 17th century . Siberian Cossack V.V. Atlasov explored Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands islands. 1690 naval officer Dubrovin compiled a map of Turkestan. The first map of the Moscow state was drawn up at the turn of the 16th – 17th centuries, 1640 - “Painting of Siberian cities and fortresses”, and in 1672 - “Drawing of the Siberian land.”

Literature. In the 17th century The last official chronicles were created."New Chronicler"(30s) outlined the events from the death of Ivan the Terrible to the end of the Time of Troubles. It proved the rights of the new Romanov dynasty to the royal throne.

The central place in historical literature was occupied by historical stories that hadjournalistic character.For example, a group of such stories (“Vremennik of clerk Ivan Timofeev”, “The Legend of Abraham Palitsyn”, “Another Legend”, etc.) was a response to the events of the Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century.

The penetration of secular principles into literature is associated with the appearance in the 17th century.genre of satirical story, where fictional characters act. “Service to the Tavern”, “The Tale of the Chicken and the Fox”, “The Kalyazin Petition” contained a parody of church services, ridiculed the gluttony and drunkenness of the monks, and “The Tale of Ersha Ershovich” contained judicial red tape and bribery. The new genres were memoirs (“The Life of Archpriest Avvakum”) and love lyrics (Simeon of Polotsk).

The reunification of Ukraine with Russia gave impetus to the creation of the first Russian printed work on history. The Kiev monk Innocent Gisel compiled a “Synopsis” (review), which in a popular form contained a story about the joint history of Ukraine and Russia, which began with the formation of Kievan Rus. In the XVII - first half of the XVIII century. "Synopsis" was used as a textbook of Russian history.

Sections: History and social studies

The formation and development of ancient Russian culture was inextricably linked with the same historical factors and conditions that influenced the formation of statehood, the development of the economy of Rus', and the political and spiritual life of society. The rich cultural heritage of the Eastern Slavs, their beliefs, experience, customs and traditions - all this was organically combined with elements of the culture of neighboring countries, tribes and peoples. Rus' did not copy or recklessly borrow someone else's heritage; it synthesized it with its own cultural traditions. The openness and synthetic nature of Russian culture largely determined its originality and originality.

Oral folk art continued to develop even after the appearance of written literature. Russian epic of the 11th – early 12th centuries. enriched with stories dedicated to the fight against the Polovtsians. The image of Vladimir Monomakh, the initiator of the fight against the nomads, merged with the image of Vladimir Svyatoslavich. By the middle of the XII - beginning of the XIII century. This includes the appearance of Novgorod epics about the “guest” Sadko, a wealthy merchant descended from an ancient boyar family, as well as a cycle of tales about Prince Roman, the prototype of which was the famous Roman Mstislavich Galitsky.

Ancient Rus' knew writing even before the official adoption of Christianity. This is evidenced by numerous written sources, such as the agreement between Prince Oleg and Byzantium, and archaeological finds. Around the first half of the 1st millennium AD. e. primitive pictographic writing (“traits” and “cuts”) arose. Later, the Slavs used the so-called Proto-Cyrillic alphabet to write complex texts. The creation of the Slavic alphabet is associated with the names of the Christian missionaries brothers Cyril (Constantine) and Methodius. In the second half of the 9th century. Kirill created the Glagolitic alphabet - the Glagolitic alphabet, and at the turn of the 9th-10th centuries. Based on the Greek letter and elements of the Glagolitic alphabet, the Cyrillic alphabet arose - an easier and more convenient alphabet, which became the only one among the Eastern Slavs.

The Baptism of Rus' at the end of the 10th century. contributed to the rapid development of writing and the spread of literacy. The Slavic language, understandable to the entire population, was used as the language of church services, and as a result of this, its development as a literary language occurred. (In contrast to the Catholic countries of Western Europe, where the language of church services was Latin, and therefore early medieval literature was predominantly Latin.) Liturgical books and religious literature began to be brought to Rus' from Byzantium, Bulgaria, and Serbia. Translated Greek literature of ecclesiastical and secular content appeared - Byzantine historical works, descriptions of travel, biographies of saints, etc. The first handwritten Russian books that have reached us date back to the 11th century. The oldest of them are “Ostromir Gospel”, written by Deacon Gregory for the Novgorod mayor Ostromir in 1057, and two “Izbornik” of Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich 1073 and 1076. The highest level of craftsmanship with which these books were made testifies to the existence of traditions of making handwritten books already by this time.

The Christianization of Rus' gave a powerful impetus to the spread literacy. The “bookish men” were princes Yaroslav the Wise, Vsevolod Yaroslavich, Vladimir Monomakh, Yaroslav Osmomysl.

Highly educated people met among the clergy, among wealthy townspeople and merchants. Literacy was not uncommon among commoners. This is evidenced by inscriptions on handicrafts, church walls (graffiti), and finally, birch bark letters, first discovered during archaeological excavations in Novgorod in 1951, and then in other cities (Smolensk, Pskov, Tver, Moscow, Staraya Russa) . The wide distribution of letters and other documents on birch bark indicates a fairly high level of education of a significant layer of the ancient Russian population, especially in cities and their suburbs.

Based on the rich traditions of oral folk art, arose Old Russian literature. One of its main genres was chronicle - weather report of events. Chronicles are the most valuable monuments of the entire spiritual culture of medieval society. The compilation of chronicles pursued very specific political goals and was a matter of state. The chronicler not only described historical events, he had to give them an assessment that met the interests of the prince-customer.

According to a number of scientists, the beginning of chronicle writing dates back to the end of the 10th century. But the oldest chronicle that has come down to us, based on earlier chronicles, dates back to 1113. It went down in history under the name “The Tale of Bygone Years” and, as is commonly believed, was created monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor. Answering the questions posed at the very beginning of the story (“Where did the Russian land come from, who was the first prince in Kiev, and how did the Russian land begin to exist”), the author unfolds a wide canvas of Russian history, which is understood as an integral part of world history (under the world in those times Biblical and Roman-Byzantine history was implied). The “Tale” is distinguished by the complexity of its composition and the variety of materials included in it; it absorbed the texts of treaties, as if illustrating records of events, retellings of folk legends, historical stories, lives, theological treatises, etc. Later

The Tale of Bygone Years,” in turn, became part of other chronicle collections. From the 12th century a new period begins in the history of Russian chronicles. If earlier the centers of chronicle writing were Kyiv and Novgorod, now, after the fragmentation of the Russian land into many different-sized principalities, chronicles are created in Chernigov, Smolensk, Polotsk, Vladimir, Rostov, Galich, Ryazan and other cities, acquiring a more local, local character.

One of the oldest monuments of ancient Russian literature is the famous “Sermon on Law and Grace” by the princely priest in Berestovo and the future first Russian metropolitan of Kyiv Hilarion (40s of the 11th century). The content of the “Word” was the substantiation of the state-ideological concept of Ancient Rus', the determination of the place of Rus' among other peoples and states, and its contribution to the spread of Christianity. The ideas of Hilarion’s work were developed in the literary and journalistic monument of the second half of the 11th century. “In memory and praise of Vladimir,” written by the monk Jacob, as well as in “The Tale of Boris and Gleb” - about the first Russian saints and patrons of Rus'.

At the beginning of the 12th century, new literary genres were formed in ancient Russian culture. These are teachings and walking (travel notes). The most striking examples are the “Instructions for Children”, compiled in his declining years by the Kyiv Grand Duke Vladimir Monomakh, as well as the famous “Walking” created by one of his associates, Abbot Daniel, which describes his journey to holy places through Constantinople and Fr. Crete to Jerusalem.

At the end of the 12th century. The most famous of the poetic works of ancient Russian literature was created - “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”. The basis of the plot of this small secular work was the description of the unsuccessful campaign against the Polovtsians of Novgorod-Seversk Prince Igor Svyatoslavich (1185). The unknown author of the Lay apparently belonged to the druzhina nobility of one of the southern Russian appanage principalities. The main idea of ​​the “Tale” was the need for unity of Russian princes in the face of external danger. At the same time, the author was not a supporter of the state unification of the Russian land; his call was aimed at agreement in actions, to an end to civil strife and princely strife. Apparently, these ideas of the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” did not find a response in the society of that time. Indirect evidence of this is the fate of the manuscript of “The Lay” - it was preserved in the only copy (which was lost during the fire of 1812 in Moscow).

Much more widespread in Rus' was another remarkable work, preserved in two main editions - “The Word”, or “Prayer”, by Daniil Zatochnik (late 12th - first quarter of the 13th century). It was written in the form of an appeal to the prince on behalf of the author - an impoverished princely servant, perhaps a warrior who fell into disgrace. A staunch supporter of strong princely power, Daniel paints an ideal image of a prince - a defender of his subjects, capable of protecting them from the tyranny of “strong people”, overcoming internal strife and ensuring security from external enemies. The brightness of the language, masterful rhyming play on words, an abundance of proverbs, aphorism, and sharply satirical attacks against the boyars and clergy ensured this talented work great popularity for a long time.

Reached a high level in Rus' architecture. Unfortunately, the monuments of ancient Russian wooden architecture have not survived to this day. Few stone structures survived, since a significant part of them was destroyed during Batu’s invasion. Monumental stone construction began in Rus' at the end of the 19th century, after the adoption of Christianity. The principles of stone construction were borrowed by Russian architects from Byzantium. The first stone building - the Tithe Church in Kyiv (end of the 10th century, destroyed in 1240) was erected by Greek craftsmen. Excavations revealed that it was a powerful structure made of thin brick, decorated with carved marble, mosaics, glazed ceramic slabs, and frescoes.

Under Yaroslav the Wise (probably around 1037), Byzantine and Russian craftsmen erected the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, which has survived to this day (though not in its original form, but significantly rebuilt from the outside). St. Sophia Cathedral is a wonderful monument not only of architecture, but also of fine art. Kiev Sophia is already significantly different from Byzantine examples in the stepped composition of the temple, the presence of thirteen domes crowning it, which was probably reflected in the traditions of Russian wooden architecture. The interior of the temple is decorated with mosaics and frescoes, some of which were apparently created by Russian masters, or, in any case, painted on Russian subjects.

Following the Kyiv Sophia, the St. Sophia Cathedral was built in Novgorod (1045–1050). And although there is a clear continuity between these two architectural monuments, the appearance of Novgorod Sophia already reveals the features of the future Novgorod architectural style. The temple in Novgorod is stricter than the one in Kyiv, it is crowned with five domes, there are no bright mosaics in the interior, but only frescoes, more severe and calm.

From the 12th century a new stage in the development of Russian architecture began. Architecture of the 12th–13th centuries. distinguished by less monumental buildings, the search for new simple and at the same time elegant forms, rigor, even stinginess of decoration. In addition, while maintaining the common features of architecture in different centers of Rus', local stylistic features are developed. In general, the architecture of this period is characterized by a combination of local traditions, forms borrowed from Byzantium and elements of the Western European Romanesque style. Particularly interesting buildings from this period have been preserved in Novgorod and in the cities of the Vladimir-Suzdal land.

In Novgorod, princely construction was reduced; boyars, merchants, and residents of this or that street began to act as customers for churches. The last of the princely Novgorod churches is the modest and elegant Church of the Savior on Nereditsa (1198), destroyed during the Great Patriotic War and then restored.

Russian medieval architecture is one of the most striking pages in the cultural history of Rus'. Architectural monuments fill our ideas about the development of culture with living, imaginative content and help us understand many aspects of history that are not reflected in written sources. This fully applies to the monumental architecture of the ancient, pre-Mongol period. As in the Western European Middle Ages, Russian architecture of the X-XIII centuries. was the main type of art, subordinating and including many other types, primarily painting and sculpture. From this time to the present day, brilliant monuments have been preserved, often not inferior in their artistic perfection to the best masterpieces of world architecture.
The thunderstorms that swept over Russia, unfortunately, wiped out many architectural monuments from the face of the earth. More than three quarters of the ancient Russian monumental buildings of the pre-Mongol period have not survived and are known to us only from excavations, and sometimes even from their mere mention in written sources. Of course, this made it very difficult to study the history of ancient Russian architecture. Nevertheless, over the past three decades, great strides have been made in this area. They are due to several reasons. First of all, it is worth noting the methodological approach, which provides for an analysis of the development of architecture in inextricable connection with the socio-economic and political history of Rus', with the development of Russian culture. It is equally important that, thanks to the wide scope of architectural and archaeological research, the number of monuments involved in study has significantly increased.

Restoration work carried out on many of them made it possible to get closer to understanding the original appearance of the structures, which, as a rule, turned out to be distorted over the long years of existence and operation. It is also very important that architectural monuments are now considered comprehensively, taking into account equally the historical, artistic, and construction-technical aspects.
As a result of the successes achieved, it became possible to understand the development of ancient Russian architecture with much greater completeness than before. Not everything in this process is still completely clear, many monuments have not yet been studied, but the overall picture nevertheless emerges quite clearly now.

CULTURE OF Rus' FROM ANCIENT TIMES TOXVII IN.

1073 – Ostromir Gospel

1076 – Mstislav Gospel

Literacy was quite widespread in medieval Rus'. 14th century – the appearance of paper (from Europe). The solemn “charter” letter was replaced by a quicker half-charter. Late 15th century - cursive writing.

1) Growing need for literate people

2) education was primary, of a ecclesiastical nature, and inaccessible (obtained in monasteries, at home, theological disciplines were taught from religious works)

3) Writing - on paper in cursive

1553 – book printing, 1563 – 1st printing house of Ivan Fedorov, 1564 – first printed book – “Apostle”, 1565 – “Book of Hours”, 1574 – 1st primer (in Lviv)

Rapid development of the education system6 primary schools, special schools. School in the German settlement; growth of printed materials, creation of state (Polish order) and private (Ordina-Nashchokina, Golitsyn) libraries, Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow (1687)

1634 – primer by V. Burtsev

1682 – multiplication table printed

1665 – school in the Spassky Monastery

1649 – school at St. Andrew’s Monastery

Chronicle

Kiev-Pechersk Monastery - the center of the origin of chronicles

1073 – ancient vault

1060 – Chronicle of the monk Nikon

193 – initial vault (abbot of the Kiev Pechersk Lavra Ivan)

1113- The Tale of Bygone Years (Nestor)

The centers of chronicle writing are Novgorod, Moscow (began under Ivan Kalit), Tver.

The peculiarity is the all-Russian character, patriotism, the idea of ​​​​the unity of Rus'. Trinity Chronicle (early 15th century), Moscow Chronicle Code (late 15th century)

“The front chronicle code” (Nikon Chronicle), “Chronicle of the beginning of the kingdom, chronographs.

30th – “New Chronicler” (last chronicle)

Literature

“The Tale of Law and Grace” (Metropolitan Hilarion, 10th century), “The Tale of Boris and Gleb” (1015), The Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh (12th century), “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” (≈1185), The Prayer of Daniil the Zatochnik ( 12th century), Life of Theodosius of Pechersk (1074), Russian Truth (1016,-1072)

Stories: “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land”, “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu”, “The Tale of Shavkal”, “Zadonshchina”, “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev”, “The Tale of Peter and Fevronia”

"Walking across three seas"

Lives of: Alexander Nevsky, Metropolitan Peter, Sergius of Radonezh, etc.

1st Russian chronograph (mid 15th century)

40th – Great Cheti-Minea (Metropolitan Macarius)

Ivan Peresvetov - “The Tale of Tsar Constantine”, “The Tale of Mohammed-Saltan”, program of reforms in the country.

Andrei Kurbskoy - “The Story of the Grand Duke of Mosov”, correspondence with Ivan the Terrible.

"Domostroy" (Sylvester)

Historical: “Synopsis” (I. Gezel), “History of Russia (Medvedev), “The Tale of the Azov Seat” (Poroshin)

Lives: Pechersky, Radonezh, Avvakum

Satire: ridicule of church ministers, judges and officials (“The Tale of Ersha Ershovich”, etc.)

Secular story-drama (“The Tale of Woe and Misfortune”, etc.)

Poems with everyday, satirical, love motives

1687 – “Virshi” (Semeon Poltsky)

Architecture

989 – Tithe Church (Kyiv)

1037- St. Sophia Cathedral (Kyiv)

1045 – Golden Gate (Kyiv)

1052 – St. Sophia Cathedral (Novgorod)

1036 – Spassky Cathedral (Chernigov)

1158-1164 – Princely Castle (Bogolyubovo)

1164 – St. George’s Church (Ladoga)

1165 – Church of the Intercession on the Nerl

1197 – Demetrius Cathedral (Vladimir)

1198 – Church of the Savior on Ryadina (Novgorod)

Novgorod, Pskov: churches of St. Nicholas on Lipna (late 13th century), Fyodor Stratilates, Savior on Ilyin Street (1361), Church of the Transfiguration (1374), Fyodor on Gorka (early 15th century). Stone Kremlin (Novgorod - 1302, Pskov - 15th century), Chamber of Facets (1433).

Tver: Church of the Transfiguration (1285-1290)

Moscow:

The formation of the Moscow style of architecture (second quarter of the 15th century)

First half of the 15th century: Assumption Cathedral in Zvenigorod (1400), the Cathedral of the Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery near Zvenigorod (1405) and the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1422)

Moscow Kremlin: Ivan Kalita – oak walls, 1367 – white stone Kremlin, end. 15th – early 16th century. – completion of the construction of the ensemble (Assumption Cathedral (1476-1479), Annunciation Cathedral (1484-1489))

Architectural ensemble of Cathedral Square: Archangel Cathedral (1505-1508), Ivan the Great Bell Tower (1505-1508,1600). Secular knowledge of the Moscow Kremlin: Princely Palace (Chamber of Facets 1487-1491)

Temple construction:

Cross-domed: Assumption Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Smolensky Cathedral of the Novodevichy Convent, St. Sophia Cathedral in Vologda, cathedrals in Tula, Suzdal, Dmitriev.

Tent: Church of the Ascension in the village. Kolomenskoye (1532), St. Basil's Cathedral (1555-1561)

Kremlins: in the central cities, in Moscow: Kitay-Gorod (1535-1538), White City (1585-1593), wooden walls on Zemlyanoy Val.

1) Secularization of architecture

2) Civil engineering (buildings of the Printing and Mint yards, chambers of the Duma clerk Averky Kirillov, house of boyar Troekurov

3)Stone construction

Shatrovoye (Spasskaya Tower of the Moscow Kremlin - 1628, Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in Putinki, Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem - 1652)

- “stone pattern” (Terem Palace of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, Trinity Church in Nikitinki, St. Nicholas Church in Pyzhi and Khamovniki, Ascension Cathedral in Ustyug, etc.)

- “Naryshkino baroque” (Church of the Intercession in Fili)

4) wooden architecture (the palace of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich in Kolomenskoye)

Painting

Mosaic – Our Lady Mary Oranta in Kyiv Sofia

Frescoes – Kyiv Sofia and Spaso-Nereditsa (Novgorod)

Iconography – Our Lady of Vladimir, the Savior Not Made by Hands, miniatures in the Ostromir Monastery

Novgorod icon painting school

Pskov icon painting school

Moscow school (based on Rastov-Suzdal)

The appearance of frescoes

Feofan the Greek (Arkhangelsk Cathedral in the Kremlin, Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin, Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary, Church of the Savior on Ilyin).

Andrey Rublev (icon “Trinity”, fresco painting of the Assumption Cathedral, icons of the Zvenigorod rank, Trinity Cathedral of the Toitsko-Sergius Monastery in Zagorsk, Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin)

Iconography: Dionysius (frescoes of the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in the Ferapontov Monastery near Vologda), “letter of existence” (Golden Chamber of the Royal Palace), the Theotokos cycle “Rejoices in You.”

Book miniature

1) Worldliness

2) Icon painting: Godunov style, Stroganov school (Prokopiy Chirin), fusion of Godunov and Stroganov styles (Armory Chamber, S.F. Ushakov - “Trinity”)

3) the last rise of fresco painting (Church of Elijah the Prophet, Church of John the Baptist in Tolchkovo)

4) Parsuns (portraits of Tsars Alexei Mikhailovich and Fyodor Alekseevich, L.K. Naryshkin, G.P. Godunov

Socio-political thought

Cultural unity and a certain stability of social and ethnic processes. The turning point was the adoption of Christianity, which merged with paganism, bringing a new worldview, but also abandoning many traditional holidays.. The struggle for the independence of the Russian Church from Byzantine rule.

70s of the 14th century. - heresy of the Strigolniks. In 1375, the Novgorod Strigolniki were executed. 15th century – Novgorod-Moscow heresy (Judaizers). They were burned in 1504.

The main ideologies are the superiority of secular power over church power ("The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir"), the superiority of church power over secular power ("The Tale of the White Cowl")

At the beginning of the 16th century. Elder Philotheus put forward the theory “Moscow is the third Rome”.

At the same time, already in the 16th century. the secularization of culture began, that is, the rejection of an exclusively religious worldview and church themes. First of all, this was expressed in the spread of rationalistic views. In the 16th century the traditions of Russian rationalistic heresies have been preserved. The most important topic journalism of the 16th century becomes a search for "truth"( Fedor Karpov, Ivan Peresvetov, Andrey Kurbskoy, Ivan 4).

Revival of socio-political thought in the first quarter of the 17th century. was associated with the upheavals of the Time of Troubles. In the middle of the century, due to a church schism, a partial split in Russian society occurred.

Science

Crafts and related specialties were well developed, and with the adoption of Orthodoxy, many scientific achievements of the Middle Ages came to Rus' through Byzantium.

From the end of the 13th century. The revival of handicraft production began, especially metal processing. Foundry became widespread - the casting of copper cannons and bells, church utensils and household items. Embossing and engraving became widespread in jewelry making.

Wood processing was at a high level.

In the 16th century The development of the craft continued. Evidence of the high skill of Russian foundries is the Tsar Cannon, cast by Andrei Chokhov at the end of the 16th century. Jewelry making was very developed, especially silver work. The construction industry was rapidly improving. New techniques for laying walls and roofs were mastered.

Survey of Siberia by Ermak.

1) The process of accumulating scientific knowledge

2) Geography and geographical discoveries: S. Dezhnev - the strait between Asia and North America (1648), E. Khabarov - map of the Amur region (1649), A. Bulygin - survey of the coast of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, V. Atlasov - survey of Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands

3) Dissemination of knowledge of other peoples in Russia

4) experiments in theoretical understanding and generalization (“Charter of military, cannon and other affairs” by A. Mikhailov)

Conclusion:The culture of Rus' after baptism became one step higher with pan-European culture and became its worthy representative. After Batu's invasion, there was a decline in culture, which, in spite of everything, began to revive with the economy of the peasants. One of the most important themes of this period was patriotism and the process of unification of lands. The natural process of secularization of culture and its response to socio-political changes is gradually being monitored. Previous after Horde yoke centuries prepared for a qualitative leap in national culture and science in the next century.

The culture of which was a striking phenomenon in the development of the country, famous for its beautiful architectural monuments and literary creations. What influenced its development? How has your view of the world changed? All this needs to be sorted out.

Ancient Rus': culture and its features before and after

As you know, the ancient state was subordinated to pagan religion, as a result of which we can talk about several characteristic features of that society. Firstly, oral folk art predominated. It was then that epics, songs and fairy tales began to emerge. People passed on the most important information from generation to generation, which has survived to this day. Secondly, wooden architecture was developed. At that time there were no stone buildings in Rus', but there were strong wooden temples and huts known throughout the world. Thirdly, there were no written sources. Yes, before acceptance new faith There were no such art monuments on the territory of our country. Fourthly, there were a lot of features that changed a lot after the adoption of Christianity:

Ancient Rus': culture and its embodiments

The entire culture of that time can be divided into three areas: writing, architecture and fine arts. So, let's start with literature. The first kind of messages to each other (and this can be called the origin were found in Novgorod, where they were nicknamed After the adoption of Christianity, Illarionov’s “Sermon on Law and Grace” appeared, as well as the “Ostromir Gospel” (the authorship is attributed to the scribe Gregory). In addition, it is impossible One cannot remember the fact that the alphabet was created by the great brothers, Cyril and Methodius, also at that time. The history of the culture of Ancient Rus', in particular, stone architecture, is the richest heritage of the entire country. What are the examples of the cross-domed style: both Kyiv and. Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. One cannot help but recall the single-domed creations of Andrei Bogolyubsky: the Assumption and Dmitrovsky Cathedrals, the Golden Gate, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl. All this is the property of our Motherland. As for fine art, it is worth mentioning such creations as mosaics. Our Lady of Oranta”, the icon “The Annunciation of Ustyug”, as well as the fresco “Prophet Zachary”.

Thus, Ancient Rus', whose culture laid the foundations for the development of the Russian soul, became an example for subsequent creators. We study her works and rejoice at the achievements of that time to this day, and this is one of the main reasons to be proud of our history.