Types and applications of non-scientific knowledge. Features of various forms of cognition

Social studies 10th grade

Topic: Unscientific knowledge

You can’t imagine it, but you can understand it.

L.D. Landau

Goals: introduce the forms and methods of non-scientific knowledge;

develop the ability to compare, draw conclusions and generalizations;

cultivate an objective attitude towards subjective concepts.

Type lesson: lesson of systematization of knowledge.

Lesson progress

I. Organizational moment

(The teacher announces the topic and goals of the lesson.)

We will consider the following questions:

Mythology.

Life experience.

Folk wisdom.

Parascience.

Art.

This material is not difficult, so today messages will be heard, and the task of the rest of the students is to give an evaluative judgment to what they heard, both in content and in the technique of presentation.

II. Political information.

Politics, economics, culture.

III. Examination homework

Terminological dictation.(, truth, deduction, induction, scientific

cognition, empirical level, theoretical level.)

Cards for weak students. Menshaev I. Shaikhutdinov, Kayumova, Ramazanova.

Match the terms and definitions.

IV. Learning new material
1. Mythology

(Student message.)

Myth - a reflection of the views of ancient people on the world, their ideas about its structure and order in it. Myths contain the primary scientific concept of the Universe, albeit naive and fantastic, but they indicate some eternal categories of human consciousness: fate, love, friendship, self-sacrifice, heroism, dreams, creativity. Archetypes and arch-plots of myths are still a theme for world art.

Features of mythological thinking:

unclear separation of subject and object, object and sign, origin and essence, thing and word, being and its name, spatial and temporal relations, etc.;

replacing the scientific explanation of the world with a story of origin and creation (geneticism and etiology);

everything that happens in myth is a kind of model for reproduction, repetition (primary subject and primary action). A myth usually combines two aspects: a story about the past and an explanation of the present or future.

The most common myths are ancient myths. But even in the vast mythological heritage of antiquity, myths stand out, without which the intellectual baggage of modern man is unthinkable.

The following groups of myths can be distinguished:

ICT. (1 slide.)

myths about heroes (Prometheus, Hercules, Theseus);

myths about creators (Daedalus and Icarus, Orpheus, Arian, Pygmalion);

myths about fate and fate (Oedipus, Actaeon, Cephalus, Sisyphus);

myths about true friends (Orestes and Pylades, Achilles and Patroclus, Kaspor and Pollux);

myths about love (Narcissus, Orpheus and Eurydice, Apollo and Daphne, Cupid and Psyche).

Now let's analyze the myths. Read the myth (work with the textbook p. 125) determine what type it belongs to (etiological, cosmogenic, calendar, eschatological, biographical).

Establish what information about the world this myth reflects; Can this information be called knowledge?

2. Life experience. Teacher's word.

Life experience combines practical and scientific-practical knowledge.

Practical knowledge is the assimilation of social experience not only with the help of language, but also at the non-verbal level: “Let me act, and I will understand.” Actions, tools, instruments are intended to obtain a practical result. The physical education teacher first explains and shows how to throw a basketball into the basket. But only during throwing will the student himself master the throwing technique.

This type of knowledge is transferred during face-to-face communication, is limited to the experience of an individual, and satisfies a specific need.

Spiritual-practical knowledge -This knowledge about how to relate to the world, other people, to myself. For example, religious commandments. Always in class I am Christians, Muslims.

-(The teacher asks them to formulate 1-2 commandments.)

ICT (2 slide)

In Buddhism there is a principle: “Do not do to others what you consider evil.”

In Taoism: “Consider your neighbor's profit as your profit, and his loss as your loss.”

In Hinduism: “Do not do to others what would cause you pain.”

In Islam: “One cannot be called a believer who does not wish for his sister or brother what he wishes for himself.”

In Judaism: “What is hateful to you, do not do to another.”

In Christianity: “Do to others what you would like them to do to you.”

The main general idea of ​​the above quotes is that all people are equal in relation to each other and they are all worthy of human treatment. This is a universal rule of moral judgment and is known as " golden rule morality (morality)".

3. Folk wisdom Teacher's word

(Folk folklore is studied in literature, music, and fine arts lessons. Using specific programs for these academic disciplines in a specific educational institution, the teacher gives preliminary assignments to the students.)

Report by Sadrieva Rimma.

Folk wisdom preserves and transmits from generation to generation important information about the world, nature, and people. But this information is not the subject of special analysis or reflection. People operate with them without thinking about their origin or authenticity.

Often information on the same subject contains contradictory information. For example, in Russian fairy tales, the poor man is always smarter and more resourceful than the rich man (the poor man has a lot of practical experience), the poor man almost always appears as a tireless worker, but Russian sayings say something else: “Work makes horses die,” “Work is not a wolf, it won’t run away into the forest.” .

What do you think are the reasons for this phenomenon?

- (Answer: Peopleincludes different social groups, sometimes havingopposing interests; folklore has no specificnew author.)

4. Parascience

(A discussion is organized based on pre-prepared messages from supporters and opponents of parascience.)

Akhmadeeva Lilya, Zinnatov Ruslan.

Teacher's word.

So, parascience is pseudo-scientific knowledge.

The cognitive capabilities of man and society are limited, but the objects of knowledge are limitless.

(The teacher draws a circle on the board with a stylized human figure inside.)

Everything a person knows is located inside the circle. It is clear that there is much more unknown to man than what is known.

The complexities and difficulties of scientific knowledge give rise to both phenomena awaiting scientific explanations and confirmation (Fermat’s theorem), and speculations that are far from the truth or the pursuit of it (Thai pills as a universal remedy for obesity and normalization of metabolism).

5. Art

Art uses an artistic image for cognition and expresses an aesthetic attitude to reality.

Hesiod argued that the muses tell lies that resemble the truth. The fact is that in an artistic image two principles are combined: objective-cognitive and subjective-creative. An artistic image is a reflection of reality through the subjective perception of it by the artist himself and those who perceive the work of art.

ICT (3 slide_)

-(The teacher suggests looking at an illustration of V.A. Serov’s painting “Girl with Peaches”. The painting was painted in 1887 and is a portrait of Verochka Mamontova. Next, the teacher asks to identify the main figure of the painting.

Students usually answer that it is a girl, judging by the title of the picture).

But the art critic is convinced that this is sunlight. Bright light floods the room through large windows, sunlight plays on the light walls, shimmers on the white tablecloth, coloring it with multi-colored shades, the same light is reflected on the heroine’s face and clothes. The play of light and shadow makes the picture attractive, because it is this play that a person constantly observes in reality.

What is a symbol of the bygone 20th century for each of you?

V. Reinforcing the material learned

ICT.(4 slide)

Write an essay on one of the following topics:

Using the example of one of the myths, determine which events in a person’s life were considered especially significant in Ancient Greece or in Ancient Rome(optional).

The French poet A. Musset said that experience is the name that most people give to the stupid things they have done or the troubles they have experienced. Is he right?

Remember and write down a few proverbs and sayings. Give them a value judgment.

Do an analysis of Russian folk tale(students' choice) as a form of cognition and formation of a way of thinking.

(The teacher collects the essay for checking.)

VIHomework

11, questions and assignments pp. 124- 126

Scientific and non-scientific knowledge

Knowledge can be divided into scientific and non-scientific, and the latter into pre-scientific, ordinary and extra-scientific, or para-scientific.

Pre-scientific knowledge is a historical stage in the development of knowledge, preceding scientific knowledge. At this stage, some cognitive techniques, forms of sensory and rational knowledge are formed, on the basis of which more developed types of cognitive activity are formed.

Everyday and parascientific knowledge exist along with scientific knowledge.

Ordinary, or everyday, knowledge is called knowledge based on observation and practical exploration of nature, on the life experience accumulated by many generations. Without denying science, it does not use its means - methods, language, categorical apparatus, but provides certain knowledge about observable natural phenomena, moral relations, principles of education, etc. A special group of everyday knowledge consists of the so-called folk sciences˸ traditional medicine, meteorology, pedagogy, etc.
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Mastering this knowledge requires lengthy training and considerable experience; it contains practically useful, time-tested knowledge, but this is not science in in every sense words.

Extrascientific (parascientific) includes knowledge that claims to be scientific, uses scientific terminology, and is in fact incompatible with science. These are the so-called occult sciences˸ alchemy, astrology, magic, etc.

Science– a system of objective knowledge tested in practice with its own methods and ways of substantiating knowledge.

Science– a social institution, a set of institutions, organizations involved in the development of new knowledge.

Scientific knowledge– highly specialized human activity in developing, systematizing, testing knowledge for the purpose of its effective use.

Thus, the main aspects of the existence of science are:

1. complex, contradictory process of obtaining new knowledge;

2. the result of this process, i.e. combining the acquired knowledge into a holistic, developing organic system;

3. social institution with all its infrastructure˸ organization of science, scientific institutions etc.; morality of science, professional associations of scientists, finance, scientific equipment, scientific information system;

4. a special area of ​​human activity and the most important element of culture.

Let us consider the main features of scientific knowledge, or the criteria of scientificity˸

1. The main task is to discover the objective laws of reality - natural, social, laws of knowledge itself, thinking, etc.
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Hence the orientation of the research mainly towards the general, essential properties of the subject, the necessary characteristics and their expression in a system of abstraction, in the form of idealized objects. If this is not the case, then there is no science, because the very concept of scientificity presupposes the discovery of laws, a deepening into the essence of the phenomena being studied. This is the main feature of science, the main feature.

Scientific and non-scientific knowledge - concept and types. Classification and features of the category “Scientific and non-scientific knowledge” 2015, 2017-2018.

Knowledge can be divided into scientific and non-scientific, and the latter into pre-scientific, ordinary and extra-scientific, or para-scientific.

Pre-scientific knowledge is a historical stage in the development of knowledge, preceding scientific knowledge. At this stage, some cognitive techniques, forms of sensory and rational knowledge are formed, on the basis of which more developed types of cognitive activity are formed.

Everyday and parascientific knowledge exist along with scientific knowledge.

Ordinary, or everyday, knowledge is called knowledge based on observation and practical exploration of nature, on the life experience accumulated by many generations. Without denying science, it does not use its means - methods, language, categorical apparatus, but provides certain knowledge about observable natural phenomena, moral relations, principles of education, etc. A special group of everyday knowledge consists of the so-called folk sciences: traditional medicine, meteorology, pedagogy, etc. Mastering this knowledge requires lengthy training and considerable experience; they contain practically useful, time-tested knowledge, but these are not sciences in the full sense of the word.

Extrascientific (parascientific) includes knowledge that claims to be scientific, uses scientific terminology, and is in fact incompatible with science. These are the so-called occult sciences: alchemy, astrology, magic, etc.

Science– a system of objective knowledge tested in practice with its own methods and ways of substantiating knowledge.

Science– a social institution, a set of institutions, organizations involved in the development of new knowledge.

Scientific knowledge– highly specialized human activity in developing, systematizing, testing knowledge for the purpose of its effective use.

Thus, the main aspects of the existence of science are:

1. complex, contradictory process of obtaining new knowledge;

2. the result of this process, i.e. combining the acquired knowledge into a holistic, developing organic system;

3. a social institution with all its infrastructure: organization of science, scientific institutions, etc.; morality of science, professional associations of scientists, finance, scientific equipment, scientific information system;

4. a special area of ​​human activity and the most important element of culture.

Let us consider the main features of scientific knowledge, or the criteria of scientific character:

1. The main task is to discover the objective laws of reality - natural, social, the laws of cognition itself, thinking, etc. Hence the orientation of research mainly on the general, essential properties of an object, its necessary characteristics and their expression in a system of abstraction, in the form of idealized objects. If this is not the case, then there is no science, because the very concept of scientificity presupposes the discovery of laws, a deepening into the essence of the phenomena being studied. This is the main feature of science, the main feature.

2. Based on knowledge of the laws of functioning and development of the objects under study, science predicts the future with the aim of further practical development of reality. The focus of science on studying not only objects that are transformed in today's practice, but also those that may become the subject of practical development in the future, is an important distinctive feature of scientific knowledge.

3. An essential feature of scientific knowledge is its systematic nature, that is, the body of knowledge put in order on the basis of certain theoretical principles, which unite individual knowledge into an integral organic system. Knowledge turns into scientific knowledge when the purposeful collection of facts, their description and generalization is brought to the level of their inclusion in a system of concepts, in the composition of a theory.

4.Science is characterized by constant methodological reflection. This means that in it the study of objects, the identification of their specificity, properties and connections is always accompanied by an awareness of the methods and techniques by which these objects are studied.

5. The immediate goal and highest value of scientific knowledge is objective truth, comprehended primarily by rational means and methods, but, of course, not without the participation of living contemplation and non-rational means. From here characteristic feature scientific knowledge - objectivity, elimination of subjectivist aspects not inherent in the subject of research to realize the “purity” of its consideration.

6. Scientific knowledge is a complex, contradictory process of production, reproduction of new knowledge, forming an integral developing system of concepts, theories, hypotheses, laws and other ideal forms, enshrined in language - natural or (more typically) artificial: mathematical symbolism, chemical formulas and etc. Scientific knowledge does not simply record its elements in language, but continuously reproduces them on its own basis, forms them in accordance with its norms and principles.

7. In the process of scientific knowledge, such specific material means as devices, tools, and other so-called “scientific equipment” are used, often very complex and expensive. Science is more characterized by the use of such ideal means and methods as modern logic, mathematical methods, dialectics, etc. to study its objects and itself.

8.Scientific knowledge is characterized by strict evidence, validity of the results obtained, and reliability of the conclusions. At the same time, there are many hypotheses, conjectures, assumptions, probabilistic judgments, etc. That is why the logical and methodological training of researchers, their philosophical culture, constant improvement of their thinking, and the ability to correctly apply its laws and principles are of utmost importance.

In modern methodology, various levels of scientific criteria are distinguished, including - in addition to those mentioned - such as formal consistency of knowledge, its experimental verifiability, reproducibility, openness to criticism, freedom from bias, rigor, etc.

Social features science:

1) cognitive (accumulation of knowledge about the surrounding world, description and explanation of phenomena of the surrounding world),

2) practical (application of scientific knowledge in practice),

3) prognostic (determining trends in the development of processes and phenomena),

4) ideological (formation of a scientific picture of the world).

Structure of scientific knowledge can be presented in its various sections and, accordingly, in the totality of its specific elements.

From the point of view of the interaction of the object and subject of scientific knowledge, the latter includes four necessary components in their unity:

1) Subjects of scientific knowledge– researcher, scientific team, society as a whole.

2) Objects of scientific knowledge– man, society, nature. The subject of research is some facet of an object, it is a phenomenon or process of one or another area of ​​reality, towards which the cognitive activity of the subject is directed.

For example, the same object - a person - can be studied by different sciences (physiology, anatomy, psychology, history, literature).

What sciences study society? (history, political science, sociology, economics, etc.)

3) Means of scientific knowledge– a system of methods and techniques that are used in the process of cognition. This will be discussed in today's lesson.

4) The purpose of scientific knowledge– description, explanation and prediction of phenomena in the surrounding world, as well as the application of scientific knowledge in practical activities.

5) Its own specific language - natural and artificial (signs, symbols).

With a different “cut” of scientific knowledge, the following elements of its structure should be distinguished: a) factual material, from empirical experience; b) the results of its initial conceptual generalization in concepts and other abstractions; c) fact-based problems and scientific assumptions; d) laws and theories that “grow” from them; e) sociocultural, value and ideological foundations; g) methods, norms of scientific knowledge, regulations and imperatives; h) thinking style and some other elements

The scientific picture of the world is a holistic system of ideas about the general properties and patterns of reality, built as a result of generalization and synthesis of fundamental scientific concepts and principles.

There are 6 criteria for scientific knowledge:

1. systematic knowledge - scientific knowledge always has a systematic, ordered nature;

2. target - any scientific knowledge is the result of a set scientific goal;

3. activity-based - scientific knowledge is always the result of the activities of scientists to realize the set scientific goal;

4. rationalistic - scientific knowledge is always based on reason (in the traditions of the East, the priority of intuition as a supersensible perception of reality has been established);

5. experimental - scientific knowledge must be confirmed experimentally;

6. mathematical - mathematical apparatus must be applicable to scientific data.

The knowledge accumulated by people has three levels: ordinary, empirical (experimental) and theoretical (level of scientific knowledge). The result scientific activity is scientific knowledge, which, depending on the content and application, is divided into:

1. factual - represent a set of systematized facts of objective reality;

2. theoretical (fundamental) - theories that explain processes occurring in objective reality;

3. technical and applied (technologies) - knowledge about the practical application of acquired knowledge;

4. practically applied (praxeological) - knowledge about the economic effect obtained as a result of the application of scientific achievements.

The forms of scientific knowledge are: scientific concepts, programs, typologies, classifications, hypotheses, theories.

The solution to any scientific problem involves putting forward various guesses and assumptions. A scientific assumption put forward to eliminate a situation of uncertainty is called a hypothesis. This is not certain, but probable knowledge. The truth or falsity of such knowledge needs to be verified. The process of establishing the truth of a hypothesis is called verification. A hypothesis confirmed experimentally is called a theory

The main criteria by which these levels are distinguished are as follows:

1) nature of the subject of research. EMP and research theorist can know one objective reality, but its vision, its representation in knowledge will be given differently. EMP research is basically focused on the study of phenomena and dependencies between them. At the level of empera cognition, essential connections are not yet identified in their pure form, but they seem to be highlighted in phenomena. At the level of theories of knowledge, essential connections are isolated in their pure form. The task of the theory is to recreate all these relationships using laws and thus reveal the essence of the object. It is necessary to distinguish between an empirical dependence and a theoretical law. The first is the result of an inductive generalization of experience and represents probabilistic-true knowledge. The second is always true knowledge. So, empirical research studies phenomena and their correlations. In these correlations it can capture the manifestation of the law, but in its pure form it is given only as a result of theoretical research

2) type of research tools used. Empirical research is based on the direct practical interaction of the researcher with the object being studied. Therefore, imperial research means directly include instruments, instrument installations and other means of real observation. In research theory there is no direct practical interaction with objects. At this level, an object can only be studied indirectly, in a thought experiment. In addition to the means associated with experiments, conceptual means are also used, in which empirical means and theoretical terms interact. language. The meaning of empirical terms is special abstractions that could be called empirical objects (real objects with strictly fixed characteristics). The main means of theoretical research are theoretical ideal objects. These are special abstractions in which the meaning of theoretical terms (ideal product) is contained.

At the empirical level of knowledge, methods such as observation, comparison, measurement, and experiment are used.

Observation- this is a purposeful, systematic perception of reality, which always presupposes the formulation of a task and the necessary activity, as well as certain experience and knowledge of the cognizing subject. Various instruments are usually used during observation.

Comparison, which involves identifying similarities and differences in the objects being studied, which allows one to draw certain conclusions by analogy.

Method measurements is a further logical development of the comparison method and means the procedure for determining the numerical value of a quantity using a unit of measurement.

Experiment when a researcher studies an object by creating artificial conditions for it that are necessary to obtain the necessary information about the properties of this object.

At the level of theoretical knowledge - historical and logical, idealization, mathematization, logical formalization, etc.

3)results are knowledge. EMP cognition involves the formation of a scientific fact based on observational data. A scientific fact arises as a result of very complex processing of observational data: their comprehension, understanding, interpretation. Theoretical cognition is dominated by forms of rational cognition (concepts, judgments, inferences). However, theory always contains sensory-visual components. We can only say that at the lower levels of empirical knowledge the sensual dominates, and at the theoretical level the rational dominates.

In reality, the empiricist and the theorist of knowledge always interact.

Today science is the main form of human knowledge. The basis of scientific knowledge is the complex creative process of the mental and subject-practical activity of a scientist. General rules this process, which is sometimes called the method Descartes , (see http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82) can be formulated as follows:

1) nothing can be accepted as true until it appears clear and distinct;

2) difficult questions must be divided into as many parts as needed to be resolved;

3) research must begin with the simplest and most convenient things to know and gradually move on to understanding things that are difficult and complex;

4) the scientist must dwell on all the details, pay attention to everything: he must be sure that he has not missed anything.

There are two level of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical . The main task empirical level of scientific knowledge is a description of objects and phenomena, and the main form of knowledge obtained is an empirical (scientific) fact. On theoretical level the phenomena being studied are explained, and the resulting knowledge is recorded in the form of laws, principles and scientific theories, which reveal the essence of the cognizable objects.

The basic principles of scientific knowledge are:

1. The principle of causality.

The principle of causality means that the emergence of any material objects and systems has some foundations in previous states of matter: these foundations are called causes, and the changes they cause are called consequences. Everything in the world is connected to each other by cause-and-effect relationships, and the task of science is to establish these connections.

2. The principle of the truth of scientific knowledge.

Truth is the correspondence of the acquired knowledge to the content of the object of knowledge. Truth is verified (proven) by practice. If a scientific theory is confirmed by practice, then it can be recognized as true.

3. The principle of relativity of scientific knowledge.

According to this principle, any scientific knowledge is always relative and limited by the cognitive capabilities of people at a given moment in time. Therefore, the task of a scientist is not only to cognize the truth, but also to establish the boundaries of the correspondence of the knowledge he has received to reality - the so-called interval of adequacy.

The main methods used in the process of empirical knowledge are observation method, empirical description method and experimental method.

Observation is a purposeful study of individual objects and phenomena, during which knowledge is obtained about the external properties and characteristics of the object being studied. Observation is based on such forms of sensory cognition as sensation, perception, and representation. The result of the observation is empirical description , during which the received information is recorded using language or other symbolic forms. A special place among the above methods is occupied by the experimental method. An experiment is a method of studying phenomena that is carried out in a strictly certain conditions, and the latter can, if necessary, be recreated and controlled by the subject of knowledge (scientist).

The following types of experiments are distinguished:

1) a research (search) experiment, which is aimed at discovering new phenomena or properties of objects unknown to science;

2) a verification (control) experiment, during which any theoretical assumptions or hypotheses are tested;

3) physical, chemical, biological, social experiments, etc.

A special type of experiment is a thought experiment. During such an experiment, the specified conditions are imaginary, but necessarily comply with the laws of science and the rules of logic. When conducting a thought experiment, a scientist operates not with real objects of knowledge, but with their mental images or theoretical models. On this basis, this type of experiment is classified not as an empirical, but as a theoretical method of scientific knowledge. We can say that it is, as it were, a connecting link between two levels of scientific knowledge - theoretical and empirical.

Among other methods related to the theoretical level of scientific knowledge, we can highlight the method of hypothesis, as well as the formulation of scientific theory.

Essence hypothesis method is to put forward and justify certain assumptions with the help of which it is possible to explain those empirical facts that do not fit into the framework of previous explanations. The purpose of testing a hypothesis is to formulate laws, principles or theories that explain phenomena in the surrounding world. Such hypotheses are called explanatory. Along with them, there are so-called existential hypotheses, which are assumptions about the existence of phenomena that are still unknown to science, but may soon be discovered (an example of such a hypothesis is the assumption about the existence of elements of D. I. Mendeleev’s periodic table that have not yet been discovered) .

Based on testing hypotheses, scientific theories are constructed. Scientific theory is a logically consistent description of the phenomena of the surrounding world, which is expressed by a special system of concepts. Any scientific theory, in addition to its descriptive function, also performs a prognostic function: it helps determine the direction further development society, the phenomena and processes occurring in it.

However, in the absence of the possibility or need for scientific knowledge, its function can be taken over by non-scientific knowledge.

The earliest type of non-scientific knowledge was myth. The main task of the myth was a consistent explanation of the structure of the world, the place of man in it, and the answer to a number of questions of interest to man. Along with storyline the myth offered a system of rules and values ​​​​accepted in a given society. Thus, myths for a person of a primitive society and ancient world at a certain stage of human development they replaced scientific knowledge, giving ready answers to emerging questions.

Another type of non-scientific knowledge is such concepts as experience and common sense. Both the first and second are often not the result of meaningful scientific activity, but represent the sum of practice expressed in non-scientific knowledge.

During the rapid development of scientific knowledge in the 19th – beginning of XXI century, a field of knowledge has also been actively developing, which has received the general name parascience. This area of ​​non-scientific knowledge usually arises in cases where the development of scientific knowledge has raised some questions that science has not been able to answer for some time. In this case, parascience does not take on the function of answering these questions. Often parascience gives a formal explanation of the processes taking place, or does not give it at all, attributing what is happening to some kind of miracle.

Parascience can either provide a scientific explanation for an existing phenomenon, and then it becomes a new type of scientific knowledge, or it cannot provide such an explanation until scientific knowledge independently finds a consistent explanation.

Parascience often makes claims to universality, i.e. the knowledge formed by it is offered as a means of solving a wide range of problems and exclusivity, i.e. a concept that changes everyone's understanding of a problem.

Thus, parascience sometimes leads to the development of scientific knowledge in other ways, but more often it is in form a delusion, which, undoubtedly, stimulates scientific processes, but leads to errors of a significant part of society.

Information for your information :

1. This must be remembered: empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge, method of observation, method of empirical description, method of experiment, method of hypothesis, method of scientific theory, R. Descartes.

Klimenko A.V., Romanina V.V. Social studies: For high school students and those entering universities: Tutorial. M.: Bustard, 2002. (Other editions are possible). Section III, paragraph 3.

Man and society. Social science. A textbook for students in grades 10-11 of general education institutions. In 2 parts. Part 1. 10th grade. Bogolyubov L.N., Ivanova L.F., Lazebnikova A.Yu. and others. M.: Education - JSC "Moscow Textbooks", 2002. (Other editions are possible). Chapter II, paragraph 10,11.

Lecture:

In the previous lesson we talked about the elements of a person’s worldview. Among them, knowledge occupies an important place. Knowledge about the surrounding world, nature, people is the result of one’s own cognitive and research activities. And they are also accumulated over centuries and passed on from generation to generation as a precious experience. Knowledge is constantly deepening, expanding and improving. Let's remember the basic definitions of today's lesson:

Knowledge- this is one of the elements of a person’s worldview, appearing in the form of learned concepts, laws, and principles.

Epistemology - the science of knowledge

Is it possible to know everything? What are the limits of human knowledge? The philosophical science of epistemology, the study of knowledge and the possibilities of knowledge, seeks answers to these and similar questions. Cognition is the main subject of epistemology, which is the process of acquiring knowledge about the world around us and oneself. During cognitive activity, a person explores the external aspects and internal essence of objects and phenomena. One of the main questions of epistemology is the question: "Are we cognizable of the world?". People answer it differently and, accordingly, are divided into gnostics (optimists), agnostics (pessimists) and skeptics. If gnostics believe that the world is knowable, then agnostics deny this possibility, and skeptics do not deny the possibility of knowing the world, but doubt the reliability of the knowledge received, the reliability of its truth.

Cognition begins with sensory perception of the world and gradually moves into a rational understanding of the world. Let's look at the stages of knowledge.

Stages (levels) of knowledge

There are two stages of knowledge: sensory and rational. Sensory cognition occurs through the senses (vision, touch, smell, hearing, taste). This is a direct form of cognition, in the process of which knowledge is obtained through direct contact. For example, you went outside and felt cold. Thus, the sensory level allows us to cognize only the external properties of the object of knowledge. This level includes three forms. Remember them:

Feeling– reflection in consciousness of individual properties of the object of knowledge. For example, the apple is sour, the voice is pleasant, the stove is hot.

Perception– reflection of all properties of the object of knowledge in its entirety. For example, we eat an apple, we feel its taste (a separate property), but at the same time we perceive the smell, color, and shape of the apple as a whole.

Performance - an image of a perceived object of cognition, preserved in memory. For example, we can remember and imagine how tasty the apple we ate yesterday was. Representation can occur not only with the help of memory, but also with the help of imagination. So, even before the construction of a house begins, the architect can imagine what it will be like.

The result of sensory knowledge is image. The role of sensory knowledge is great. Sense organs connect a person with the outside world, without them he is not able to think and cognize. Sensory cognition is inherent not only to humans, but also to higher animals.

The next step is rational cognition occurs with the help of the mind and abstract thinking. If sensory cognition occurs directly, then rational cognition is an indirect form of cognition. For example, to find out whether it is cold outside or not, a person does not have to leave the house, just look at the thermometer. If at the sensory level a person cognizes the external properties of the object of knowledge, then at the rational level the internal properties of the object, its essence, are established. This level of cognition also includes three forms:

Concept is a thought that captures the signs and properties of an object of cognition. For example, "Tree". Concepts in the human mind are connected with each other and form judgments.

Judgment– a thought that affirms or denies something about a cognizable object. For example, “All trees belong to the class plants.”

Inference – the final conclusion that is formed in the process of thinking about concepts and judgments. For example, “Spruce is a coniferous tree. Since all trees belong to the class of plants, therefore spruce is also a plant."

The result of rational knowledge is knowledge. Rational knowledge is inherent only to man. Look at the illustration. Thinking is a holistic process that occurs as a result of sensory and rational cognition.

Which stage of cognition is more important, primary? In relation to this issue, two opposing directions have emerged in philosophy: rationalism and sensationalism (empiricism). Rationalists recognize reason and abstract thinking as the basis of knowledge. For them, sensory knowledge is secondary. And sensualists (empiricists) put sensation, perception and representation, that is, feelings, in the first place. For them, rational knowledge is secondary.

In reality, the sensory and rational levels of cognition are a single process. It’s just that in some cognitive processes sensory cognition predominates, while in others rational cognition predominates.

Types of knowledge

Knowledge is possible in a variety of areas. There are many types of cognition, and therefore types of knowledge. Let's consider scientific and non-scientific knowledge.

Scientific knowledge is a systematically organized process of obtaining objective and substantiated true knowledge.

Its features and distinctive features are:

• Objectivity – the desire to study the world as it is, regardless of the interests and aspirations of the subject of knowledge.
• Validity – reinforcement of knowledge with evidence, facts and logical conclusions.
• Rationality – the reliance of scientific knowledge on thinking, the exclusion of personal opinions, emotions, and feelings.
• Systematicity – structure of scientific knowledge.
• Verifiability – confirmation of knowledge in practical activities.

Let us consider the process of scientific knowledge using the example of research by a biologist studying the dependence of plant height on climate. So, the scientist suggested that trees are, on average, taller in areas with a warm climate. (This is a statement of a hypothesis that is confirmed or refuted by the results of the study.) In search of evidence, the biologist went south, measured the height of three hundred trees, and recorded the measurement results. (This is the empirical level of scientific knowledge.) Returning to the laboratory, the scientist made calculations, compared the data, conclusively confirmed the correctness of his hypothesis and drew conclusions. (This is a theoretical level.)

Scientific knowledge is impossible without identifying cause and effect relationships. One phenomenon or event is connected with another, which is called a cause and gives rise to an effect. Let's imagine a very simple example. Petya and Kolya are walking along a narrow path (event). Petya stepped on Kolya’s foot (event). The consequence is a sore leg. The reason is the narrow path. Thus, identifying cause-and-effect relationships means that it is necessary to establish the dependence of one phenomenon on another.

One of the types of scientific cognition is social cognition.

Social cognition– this is the knowledge of the laws and principles of the functioning of society, culture, and man.

The result of social cognition is social and humanitarian knowledge, which we study in history and social studies lessons. Social studies is an integrated school subject and includes several social sciences and humanities (philosophy, sociology, economics, political science, jurisprudence, cultural studies, psychology, etc.). Social cognition differs from natural science in a number of significant features. Let's look at them:

• if in natural science cognition the subject is a person, and the object is objects and phenomena, then in social cognition the subject and object of cognition coincide, that is, people know themselves;
• if the main feature of natural science knowledge is objectivity, then social and humanitarian knowledge is subjective, because the results of research by sociologists, historians, ethnographers, and lawyers are interpreted depending on their own views and judgments;
• if scientists - natural scientists who study nature, strive to achieve absolute truth, then scientists who study man and society achieve relative truth, because society is dynamic and constantly changing;
• the application of many natural scientific methods of cognition in social cognition is limited; for example, it is impossible to study the level of inflation under a microscope; this is done by abstraction.

The impetus for the beginning of social cognition is social facts (the actions of individuals or groups), someone’s opinions and judgments, as well as the results of the material and intangible activities of people. Social research aims to discover historical patterns and social forecasting. To achieve these goals, scientists and researchers use social reality (practice), historical informants (archaeology, documents) and the experience of generations.

Opening historical patterns happens when between social phenomena and processes reveal an objectively repeating connection. Undoubtedly, historical events and personalities are unique, for example, there cannot be two absolutely identical wars or presidents. However, some of them have common features and trends. When these features and trends are constantly repeated, we can speak of a historical pattern. An example of a historical pattern is the rise and fall of any empire.

There are two approaches to the study of society and history:

formational (K. Marx, F. Engels);

civilizational (O. Spengler, A. Toynbee).

The classification of societies within the framework of the formational approach is based on the natural change of socio-economic formations from lower to higher, from simple to complex: primitive society → slave society → feudal society → capitalist society → communist society. The driving force of such development is the class struggle, for example, in a slave-owning society - the struggle between slave owners and slaves, in a feudal society - the struggle between feudal lords and peasants. Throughout history, society develops, moving from one formation to another. The ultimate goal of this movement, according to the teachings of K. Marx, F. Engels, and then V.I. Lenin is communism.

Socio-economic formation- this is a stage in the evolution of society, characterized by a certain stage of development of the productive forces and the production relations corresponding to it.

If the formational approach focuses attention on the universal, then the civilizational approach studies the uniqueness and uniqueness of the history of each people or country. Therefore, the basis for the classification of societies within the framework of the civilizational approach is the spiritual, ideological, and cultural factor. This approach to the study of history and society focuses on the local-regional characteristics of a particular society. Thus, Russian, Chinese, Japanese, Indian societies or civilizations are distinguished. There are civilizations that have long disappeared, for example, the Mayan civilization, the Roman civilization. Most modern scientists adhere to a civilizational approach to the study of history and society.

Civilization- this is a stage of social development that has stable features of material production, spiritual culture, and the way of life of a particular region.

Social forecasting is the science of futurology. Its main goal is to develop options for the development of society or its objects. Forecasting is possible in various spheres of society, economic, legal, cultural. It is carried out by such methods as analysis, comparison, questioning, experiment, etc. The importance of social forecasting is great. For example, labor market forecasting provides information about in-demand professions and vacant positions.

Let's talk briefly about non-scientific knowledge and its types.

Unscientific knowledge - knowledge of the surrounding world, based on faith and intuition.

• Ordinary cognition based on a person's observations and common sense, consistent with his life experience. Ordinary knowledge has great practical value and is a guideline for a person’s everyday behavior, his relationships with other people and nature. Characteristic feature ordinary knowledge is that they describe what is happening: “the paper is burning,” “an object thrown up will definitely fall to the ground,” but they do not explain why it is this way and not otherwise.

• Mythological knowledge - This is a fantastic reflection of reality. Myths arose in primitive society. U primitive people didn't have enough experience to understand true reasons the origin of man and the world, natural phenomena, therefore they were explained with the help of myths and legends. Myths still exist today. Heroes modern myths are Father Frost, Baba Yaga, Batman, etc.

• Religious knowledge – this is knowledge based on religious texts (Bible, Koran, etc.).

• Artistic knowledge - this is cognition through the means of art. The world around us is reflected not in concepts, but in artistic images works of literature or theater, music or cinema, architecture or painting.

• Folk wisdom - these are fairy tales, proverbs and sayings, songs accumulated over centuries and passed on from generation to generation, which teach how to behave towards others.

• Parascience- pseudo-scientific knowledge that arose a long time ago, when science was not yet sufficiently developed. Unlike science, parascience does not provide facts and is based on assumptions that are not confirmed by research. Parasciences include ufology, astrology, telepathy, magic, extrasensory perception and others.

Exercise: Give arguments proving the benefits of knowledge for individuals, society and the state. Write your opinion in the comments. Be active, let's help each other replenish the arguments for essays)))