Types of drama (dramatic genres). What is dramaturgy: definition and examples of works Drama as a literary genus or type

- ▲ type of fiction, types of literature. epic genre. epic. prose fictional story about which l. events. prose (# works). fiction. lyrics. drama... Ideographic Dictionary of the Russian Language

This term has other meanings, see Drama. Not to be confused with Drama (a type of literature). Drama is a literary (dramatic), stage and cinematic genre. Received particular popularity in the literature of the 18th and 21st centuries,... ... Wikipedia

In art: Drama is a type of literature (along with epic and lyric poetry); Drama is a type of stage cinematic action; a genre that includes various subgenres and modifications (such as bourgeois drama, absurdist drama, etc.); Toponym(s): ... ... Wikipedia

D. as a poetic genus Origin D. Eastern D. Ancient D. Medieval D. D. Renaissance From Renaissance to Classicism Elizabethan D. Spanish D. Classical D. Bourgeois D. Ro ... Literary encyclopedia

Epic, lyric, drama. It is determined according to various criteria: from the point of view of methods of imitation of reality (Aristotle), types of content (F. Schiller, F. Schelling), categories of epistemology (objective subjective in G. W. F. Hegel), formal... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Drama (Greek dráma, literally - action), 1) one of the three types of literature (along with epic and lyric poetry; see literary genre). D. belongs simultaneously to theater and literature: being the fundamental basis of the performance, it is at the same time perceived in... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Modern encyclopedia

Literary gender- GENUS LITERARY, one of three groups of works fiction epic, lyric, drama. The tradition of generic division of literature was founded by Aristotle. Despite the fragility of the boundaries between genera and the abundance of intermediate forms (lyric epic ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

Epic, lyric, drama. It is determined according to various criteria: from the point of view of methods of imitation of reality (Aristotle), types of content (F. Schiller, F. Schelling), categories of epistemology (objective subjective in G. Hegel), formal characteristics... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

ROD, a (y), prev. about (in) gender and in (on) gender, plural. s, ov, husband. 1. The main social organization of the primitive communal system, united by blood kinship. The elder of the clan. 2. A number of generations descending from one ancestor, as well as a generation in general... Dictionary Ozhegova

Books

• Pushkin, Tynyanov Yuri Nikolaevich. Yuri Nikolaevich Tynyanov (1894-1943) - an outstanding prose writer and literary critic - looked like Pushkin, which he had been told about since his student years. Who knows, maybe it was this similarity that helped...

Drama (Old Greek drama - action) is a type of literature that reflects life in actions taking place in the present.

Dramatic works are intended for production on stage; this determines the specific features of drama:

1) lack of narrative-descriptive image;

3) the main text of a dramatic work is presented in the form of replicas of the characters (monologue and dialogue);

4) drama as a type of literature does not have such a variety of artistic and visual means as epic: speech and action are the main means of creating the image of a hero;

5) the volume of text and time of action is limited to the stage;

6) requirements performing arts dictated by such a feature of the drama as a certain exaggeration (hyperbolization): “exaggeration of events, exaggeration of feelings and exaggeration of expressions” (L.N. Tolstoy) - in other words, theatrical showiness, increased expressiveness; the viewer of the play feels the conventionality of what is happening, which A.S. said very well. Pushkin: “the very essence of dramatic art excludes verisimilitude... when reading a poem, a novel, we can often forget ourselves and believe that the incident described is not fiction, but the truth. In an ode, in an elegy, we can think that the poet depicted his real feelings, in real circumstances. But where is the credibility in a building divided into two parts, one of which is filled with spectators who agreed etc.

Drama (ancient Greek δρᾶμα - deed, action) is one of the three types of literature, along with epic and lyric poetry, belonging simultaneously to two types of art: literature and theater. Intended to be played on stage, drama formally differs from epic and lyric poetry in that the text in it is presented in the form of characters’ remarks and author’s remarks and, as a rule, is divided into actions and phenomena. Drama in one way or another includes any literary work constructed in a dialogical form, including comedy, tragedy, drama (as a genre), farce, vaudeville, etc.

Since ancient times, it has existed in folklore or literary form among various peoples; The ancient Greeks, ancient Indians, Chinese, Japanese, and American Indians created their own dramatic traditions independently of each other.

Literally translated from ancient Greek, drama means “action.”

Types of Drama tragedy drama (genre) drama for reading (play for reading)

Melodrama hierodrama mystery comedy vaudeville farce zaju

History of drama The beginnings of drama are in primitive poetry, in which the later elements of lyricism, epic and drama merged in connection with music and facial movements. Earlier than among other peoples, drama as a special type of poetry was formed among the Hindus and Greeks.

Dionysian dances

Greek drama, developing serious religious-mythological plots (tragedy) and funny ones drawn from modern life (comedy), reaches high perfection and in the 16th century is a model for European drama, which until that time had artlessly treated religious and secular narrative plots (mysteries, school dramas and sideshows, fastnachtspiel, sottises).

French playwrights, imitating the Greek ones, strictly adhered to certain provisions that were considered unchangeable for the aesthetic dignity of drama, such as: unity of time and place; the duration of the episode depicted on stage should not exceed a day; the action must take place in the same place; the drama should develop correctly in 3-5 acts, from the beginning (clarification of the initial position and characters of the characters) through the middle vicissitudes (changes of positions and relationships) to the denouement (usually a catastrophe); the number of characters is very limited (usually from 3 to 5); these are exclusively the highest representatives of society (kings, queens, princes and princesses) and their closest servants-confidants, who are introduced onto the stage for the convenience of conducting dialogue and delivering remarks. These are the main features of French classical drama (Cornel, Racine).

The rigor of the requirements of the classical style was no longer observed in comedies (Molière, Lope de Vega, Beaumarchais), which gradually moved from convention to the depiction of ordinary life (genre). Free from classical conventions, Shakespeare's work opened up new paths for drama. The end of the 18th and the first half of the 19th centuries were marked by the appearance of romantic and national dramas: Lessing, Schiller, Goethe, Hugo, Kleist, Grabbe.

In the second half of XIX century, realism takes over in European drama (Dumas fils, Ogier, Sardou, Palleron, Ibsen, Sudermann, Schnitzler, Hauptmann, Beyerlein).

In the last quarter of the 19th century, under the influence of Ibsen and Maeterlinck, symbolism began to take over the European stage (Hauptmann, Przybyszewski, Bar, D'Annunzio, Hofmannsthal).

Design of a dramatic work Unlike other prose and poetic works, dramatic works have a strictly defined structure. A dramatic work consists of alternating blocks of text, each with its own purpose, and highlighted by typography so that they can be more easily distinguished from each other. Dramatic text may include the following blocks:

The list of characters is usually located before the main text of the work. If necessary, it gives a brief description of the hero (age, appearance, etc.)

External remarks - a description of the action, the situation, the appearance and departure of the characters. Often typed either in a reduced size, or in the same font as the replicas, but in a larger format. The external remarks may include the names of the heroes, and if the hero appears for the first time, his name is additionally highlighted. Example:

A room that is still called a nursery. One of the doors leads to Anya's room. Dawn, the sun will rise soon. It’s already May, the cherry trees are blooming, but it’s cold in the garden, it’s morning. The windows in the room are closed.

Dunyasha enters with a candle and Lopakhin with a book in his hand.

Replicas are the words spoken by the characters. Replies must be preceded by the name of the character and may include internal remarks. Example:

Dunyasha. I thought you left. (Listens.) It seems they are already on their way.

Lopakhin (listens). No... Get your luggage, this and that...

Internal remarks, unlike external ones, briefly describe the actions that occur during the hero’s utterance of a line, or the features of the utterance. If some complex action occurs during the utterance of a cue, you should describe it using an external cue, while indicating either in the remark itself or in the remark using an internal remark that the actor continues to speak during the action. An internal remark refers only to a specific replica of a specific actor. It is separated from the replica by brackets and can be typed in italics.

The two most common ways of designing dramatic works are book and cinematic. If in a book format, different font styles, different sizes, etc. can be used to separate parts of a dramatic work, then in cinematic scripts it is customary to use only a monospaced typewriter font, and to separate parts of a work, use spacing, typesetting for different formats, typesetting for all capitalization, space, etc. - that is, only those facilities that are available on a typewriter. This allowed script changes to be made many times during production while maintaining readability .

Drama in Russia

Drama in Russia was brought from the West at the end of the 17th century. Independent dramatic literature appeared only at the end of the 18th century. Until the first quarter of the 19th century, the classical direction predominated in drama, both in tragedy and in comedy and comedy opera; best authors: Lomonosov, Knyazhnin, Ozerov; I. Lukin’s attempt to draw the attention of playwrights to the depiction of Russian life and morals remained in vain: all of their plays are lifeless, stilted and alien to Russian reality, except for the famous “Minor” and “Brigadier” by Fonvizin, “Sneak” by Kapnist and some comedies by I. A. Krylov .

At the beginning of the 19th century, Shakhovskaya, Khmelnitsky, Zagoskin became imitators of light French drama and comedy, and the representative of stilted patriotic drama was the Puppeteer. Griboyedov's comedy "Woe from Wit", later "The Government Inspector", Gogol's "Marriage", become the basis of Russian everyday drama. After Gogol, even in vaudeville (D. Lensky, F. Koni, Sollogub, Karatygin) there is a noticeable desire to get closer to life.

Ostrovsky gave a number of wonderful historical chronicles and everyday comedies. After him, Russian drama stood on solid ground; the most outstanding playwrights: A. Sukhovo-Kobylin, I. S. Turgenev, A. Potekhin, A. Palm, V. Dyachenko, I. Chernyshev, V. Krylov, N. Ya. Solovyov, N. Chaev, gr. A. Tolstoy, gr. L. Tolstoy, D. Averkiev, P. Boborykin, Prince Sumbatov, Novezhin, N. Gnedich, Shpazhinsky, Evt. Karpov, V. Tikhonov, I. Shcheglov, Vl. Nemirovich-Danchenko, A. Chekhov, M. Gorky, L. Andreev and others.

Dramatic works (other gr. action), like epic ones, recreate event series, the actions of people and their relationships. Like the author of an epic work, the playwright is subject to the “law of developing action.” But there is no detailed narrative-descriptive image in the drama.

The actual author's speech here is auxiliary and episodic. These are lists of characters, sometimes accompanied by brief characteristics, designation of time and place of action; descriptions of the stage situation at the beginning of acts and episodes, as well as comments on individual remarks of the characters and indications of their movements, gestures, facial expressions, intonations (remarks).

All this constitutes a secondary text of a dramatic work. Its main text is a chain of statements by the characters, their remarks and monologues.

Hence some limitations of the artistic possibilities of drama. A writer-playwright uses only part of the visual means that are available to the creator of a novel or epic, short story or story. And the characters of the characters are revealed in drama with less freedom and completeness than in epic. “I perceive drama,” noted T. Mann, “as the art of silhouette and I perceive only the person being told as a three-dimensional, integral, real and plastic image.”

At the same time, playwrights, unlike authors of epic works, are forced to limit themselves to the volume of verbal text that meets the needs of theatrical art. The time of the action depicted in the drama must fit within the strict time frame of the stage.

And the performance in the forms familiar to modern European theater lasts, as is known, no more than three to four hours. And this requires an appropriate size of the dramatic text.

The time of the events reproduced by the playwright during the stage episode is neither compressed nor stretched; characters in the drama exchange remarks without any noticeable time intervals, and their statements, as noted by K.S. Stanislavsky, form a continuous, continuous line.

If with the help of narration the action is captured as something in the past, then the chain of dialogues and monologues in the drama creates the illusion of the present time. Life here speaks as if on its own behalf: between what is depicted and the reader there is no intermediary narrator.

The action is recreated in drama with maximum immediacy. It flows as if before the reader’s eyes. “All narrative forms,” wrote F. Schiller, “transfer the present into the past; everything dramatic makes the past present.”

Drama is oriented towards the demands of the stage. And theater is a public, mass art. The performance directly affects many people, who seem to merge together in responses to what is happening in front of them.

The purpose of drama, according to Pushkin, is to act on the multitude, to engage their curiosity” and for this purpose to capture the “truth of passions”: “Drama was born in the square and was popular entertainment. People, like children, demand entertainment and action. The drama presents him with unusual, strange incidents. People demand strong sensations. Laughter, pity and horror are the three strings of our imagination, shaken by dramatic art.”

The dramatic genre of literature is especially closely connected with the sphere of laughter, for the theater strengthened and developed in inextricable connection with mass celebrations, in an atmosphere of play and fun. “The comic genre is universal for antiquity,” noted O. M. Freidenberg.

The same can be said about theater and drama of other countries and eras. T. Mann was right when he called the “comedian instinct” “the fundamental basis of all dramatic skill.”

It is not surprising that drama gravitates towards an outwardly spectacular presentation of what is depicted. Her imagery turns out to be hyperbolic, catchy, theatrically bright. “The theater requires exaggerated broad lines both in voice, recitation, and in gestures,” wrote N. Boileau. And this property of stage art invariably leaves its mark on the behavior of the heroes of dramatic works.

“Like he acted out in the theater,” comments Bubnov (“At the Lower Depths” by Gorky) on the frenzied tirade of the desperate Kleshch, who, by unexpectedly intruding into the general conversation, gave it theatrical effect.

Significant (as a characteristic of the dramatic type of literature) are Tolstoy’s reproaches against W. Shakespeare for the abundance of hyperbole, which allegedly “violates the possibility of artistic impression.” “From the very first words,” he wrote about the tragedy “King Lear,” “one can see the exaggeration: the exaggeration of events, the exaggeration of feelings and the exaggeration of expressions.”

In his assessment of Shakespeare's work, L. Tolstoy was wrong, but the idea that the great English playwright was committed to theatrical hyperbole is completely fair. What has been said about “King Lear” can be applied with no less justification to ancient comedies and tragedies, dramatic works of classicism, to the plays of F. Schiller and V. Hugo, etc.

In the 19th-20th centuries, when the desire for everyday authenticity prevailed in literature, the conventions inherent in drama became less obvious, and they were often reduced to a minimum. The origins of this phenomenon are the so-called “philistine drama” of the 18th century, the creators and theorists of which were D. Diderot and G.E. Lessing.

Works of the greatest Russian playwrights of the 19th century. and the beginning of the 20th century - A.N. Ostrovsky, A.P. Chekhov and M. Gorky - are distinguished by the authenticity of the life forms recreated. But even when the Playwrights focused on verisimilitude, plot, psychological and actual speech hyperboles were preserved.

Theatrical conventions made themselves felt even in Chekhov’s dramaturgy, which showed the maximum limit of “life-likeness.” Let's take a closer look at the final scene of Three Sisters. One young woman, ten or fifteen minutes ago, broke up with her loved one, probably forever. Another five minutes ago found out about the death of her fiancé. And so they, together with the elder, third sister, sum up the moral and philosophical results of the past, reflecting to the sounds of a military march about the fate of their generation, about the future of humanity.

It is hardly possible to imagine this happening in reality. But we don’t notice the implausibility of the ending of “Three Sisters”, since we are accustomed to the fact that drama significantly changes the forms of people’s life.

The above convinces us of the validity of A. S. Pushkin’s judgment (from his already cited article) that “the very essence of dramatic art excludes verisimilitude”; “When reading a poem or a novel, we can often forget ourselves and believe that the incident described is not fiction, but the truth.

In an ode, in an elegy, we can think that the poet depicted his real feelings, in real circumstances. But where is the credibility in a building divided into two parts, one of which is filled with spectators who have agreed?

The most important role in dramatic works belongs to the conventions of verbal self-disclosure of heroes, whose dialogues and monologues, often filled with aphorisms and maxims, turn out to be much more extensive and effective than those remarks that could be uttered in a similar situation in life.

Conventional remarks are “to the side”, which do not seem to exist for other characters on stage, but are clearly audible to the audience, as well as monologues pronounced by the characters alone, alone with themselves, which are a purely stage technique for bringing out inner speech (there are many such monologues as in ancient tragedies and in modern dramaturgy).

The playwright, setting up a kind of experiment, shows how a person would speak if in the spoken words he expressed his moods with maximum completeness and brightness. And speech in a dramatic work often takes on similarities with artistic, lyrical or oratorical speech: the characters here tend to express themselves like improvisers-poets or masters of public speaking.

Therefore, Hegel was partly right when he viewed drama as a synthesis of the epic principle (eventfulness) and the lyrical principle (speech expression).

Drama has, as it were, two lives in art: theatrical and literary. Constituting the dramatic basis of performances, existing in their composition, a dramatic work is also perceived by the reading public.

But this was not always the case. The emancipation of drama from the stage was carried out gradually - over a number of centuries and was completed relatively recently: in the 18th-19th centuries. World-significant examples of drama (from antiquity to the 17th century) at the time of their creation were practically not recognized as literary works: they existed only as part of the performing arts.

Neither W. Shakespeare nor J.B. Moliere were perceived by their contemporaries as writers. A decisive role in strengthening the idea of ​​drama as a work intended not only for stage production, but also for reading, was played by the “discovery” of Shakespeare as a great dramatic poet in the second half of the 18th century.

In the 19th century (especially in its first half) the literary merits of the drama were often placed above the stage ones. Thus, Goethe believed that “Shakespeare’s works are not for the eyes of the body,” and Griboyedov called his desire to hear the verses of “Woe from Wit” from the stage “childish.”

The so-called Lesedrama (drama for reading), created with a focus primarily on perception in reading, has become widespread. Such are Goethe's Faust, Byron's dramatic works, Pushkin's small tragedies, Turgenev's dramas, about which the author remarked: “My plays, unsatisfactory on stage, may be of some interest in reading.”

There are no fundamental differences between Lesedrama and a play that is intended by the author for stage production. Dramas created for reading are often potentially stage plays. And the theater (including modern) persistently searches and sometimes finds the keys to them, evidence of which is the successful productions of Turgenev’s “A Month in the Country” (primarily the famous pre-revolutionary performance of the Art Theater) and numerous (although not always successful) stage readings Pushkin's small tragedies in the 20th century.

The old truth remains in force: the most important, main purpose of drama is the stage. “Only during stage performance,” noted A. N. Ostrovsky, “the author’s dramatic invention receives a completely finished form and produces exactly that moral action, the achievement of which the author set himself as a goal.”

The creation of a performance based on a dramatic work is associated with its creative completion: the actors create intonational and plastic drawings of the roles they play, the artist designs the stage space, the director develops the mise-en-scène. In this regard, the concept of the play changes somewhat (more attention is paid to some of its aspects, less attention to others), and is often specified and enriched: the stage production introduces new shades of meaning into the drama.

At the same time, the principle of faithful reading of literature is of paramount importance for the theater. The director and actors are called upon to convey the staged work to the audience as fully as possible. Fidelity of stage reading occurs when the director and actors deeply comprehend a dramatic work in its main content, genre, and style features.

Stage productions (as well as film adaptations) are legitimate only in cases where there is agreement (even relative) of the director and actors with the range of ideas of the writer-playwright, when stage performers are carefully attentive to the meaning of the work staged, to the features of its genre, the features of its style and to the text itself.

In the classical aesthetics of the 18th-19th centuries, in particular in Hegel and Belinsky, drama (primarily the genre of tragedy) was considered as the highest form literary creativity: as “the crown of poetry.”

Whole line artistic eras and in fact showed himself primarily in dramatic art. Aeschylus and Sophocles during the heyday of ancient culture, Moliere, Racine and Corneille at the time of classicism had no equal among the authors of epic works.

Goethe's work is significant in this regard. For the great German writer All literary genres were available, but he crowned his life in art with the creation of a dramatic work - the immortal “Faust”.

In past centuries (until the 18th century), drama not only successfully competed with epic, but also often became the leading form of artistic reproduction of life in space and time.

This is due to a number of reasons. Firstly, theatrical art played a huge role, accessible (unlike handwritten and printed books) to the widest strata of society. Secondly, the properties of dramatic works (depiction of characters with clearly defined features, reproduction of human passions, attraction to pathos and the grotesque) in “pre-realistic” eras fully corresponded to general literary and general artistic trends.

And although in the XIX-XX centuries. The socio-psychological novel, a genre of epic literature, has moved to the forefront of literature; dramatic works still have a place of honor.

V.E. Khalizev Theory of literature. 1999

The concepts of “genus”, type”, “genre”

Literary gender - series literary works, similar in the type of their speech organization and cognitive focus on an object or subject, or the act of artistic expression itself.

The division of literature into genera is based on the distinction between the functions of the word: the word either depicts the objective world, or expresses the state of the speaker, or reproduces the process of verbal communication.

Traditionally, three literary types are distinguished, each of which corresponds to a specific function of the word:
epic (visual function);
lyrics (expressive function);
drama (communicative function).

Target:
The portrayal of the human personality is objective, in interaction with other people and events.
Item:
The external world in its plastic volume, spatio-temporal extent and event intensity: characters, circumstances, social and natural environment in which the characters interact.
Content:
Objective content reality in its material and spiritual aspects, presented in characters and circumstances artistically typified by the author.
The text has a predominantly descriptive-narrative structure; a special role is played by the system of object-visual details.

Target:
Expression of thoughts and feelings of the author-poet.
Item:
The inner world of the individual in its impulsiveness and spontaneity, the formation and change of impressions, dreams, moods, associations, meditations, reflections caused by interaction with the outside world.
Content:
The subjective inner world of the poet and the spiritual life of humanity.
Features of the art organization speeches:
The text is characterized by increased expressiveness; a special role is played by the figurative capabilities of the language, its rhythmic and sound organization.

Target:
A depiction of the human personality in action, in conflict with other people.
Item:
The outer world, presented through the characters and purposeful actions of the characters, and the inner world of the heroes.
Content:
The objective content of reality, presented in characters and circumstances artistically typified by the author and presupposing stage embodiment.
Features of the art organization speeches:
The text has a predominantly dialogic structure, which includes monologues of the characters.
Literary type is a stable type of poetic structure within a literary genre.

Genre - a group of works within literary type, united by common formal, content or functional characteristics. Each literary era and movement has its own specific system of genres.

Epic: types and genres

Large forms:
Epic;
Novel (Novel genres: Family-domestic, Socio-psychological, Philosophical, Historical, Fantastic, Utopian novel, Educational novel, Love story, Adventure novel, Travel novel, Lyric-epic (novel in verse))
Epic novel;
Epic poem.

Medium forms:
Tale (story genres: Family-household, Socio-psychological, Philosophical, Historical, Fantastic, Fairy-tale, Adventure, Tale in verse);
Poem (poem genres: Epic, Heroic, Lyrical, Lyric-epic, Dramatic, Ironic-comic, Didactic, Satirical, Burlesque, Lyric-dramatic (romantic));

Small forms:
Story (story genres: Essay (descriptive-narrative, “moral-descriptive”), Novellistic (conflict-narrative);
Novella;
Fairy tale (fairy tale genres: Magical, Social-everyday, Satirical, Socio-political, Lyrical, Fantastic, Animalistic, Scientific-educational);
Fable;
Essay (essay genres: Fiction, Journalistic, Documentary).

Epic - monumental in form epic work national issues.

A novel is a large form of epic, a work with a detailed plot, in which the narrative is focused on the destinies of several individuals in the process of their formation, development and interaction, unfolded in an artistic space and time sufficient to convey the “organization” of the world and analyze its historical essence. As an epic of private life, the novel represents individual and social life as relatively independent elements, not exhaustive and not absorbing each other. The story of individual fate in the novel takes on a general, substantial meaning.

A story is the middle form of an epic, a work with a chronicle plot, as a rule, in which the narrative is focused on the fate of an individual in the process of its formation and development.

Poem - a large or medium-sized poetic work with a narrative or lyrical plot; in various genre modifications it reveals its synthetic nature, combining moral descriptive and heroic principles, intimate experiences and great historical upheavals, lyrical-epic and monumental tendencies.

A short story is a small epic form of fiction, small in terms of the volume of life phenomena depicted, and hence in terms of the volume of text, a prose work.

A short story is a small prose genre comparable in volume to a short story, but differs from it in its sharp centripetal plot, often paradoxical, lack of descriptiveness and compositional rigor.

Literary fairy tale- author's artistic prose or poetic work, based either on folklore sources, or purely original; the work is predominantly fantastic, magical, depicting wonderful adventures of fictional or traditional fairy-tale heroes, in which magic and miracle play the role of a plot-forming factor and serve as the main starting point for the characterization of the characters.

A fable is a small form of epic of a didactic nature, a short story in verse or prose with a directly formulated moral conclusion giving the story allegorical meaning. The existence of the fable is universal: it is applicable to different occasions. Art world fables include a traditional range of images and motifs (animals, plants, schematic figures of people, instructive plots), often colored in tones of comedy and social criticism.

An essay is a type of small form of epic literature, differing from a short story and a short story in the absence of a single, quickly resolved conflict and the greater development of a descriptive image. The essay touches not so much on the problems of developing the character of an individual in his conflicts with the established social environment, but rather on the problems of civil and moral state“environment” and has great cognitive diversity.

Lyrics: thematic groups and genres

Thematic groups:
Meditative lyrics
Intimate lyrics
(friendly and love lyrics)
Landscape lyrics
Civil (socio-political) lyrics
Philosophical lyrics

Genres:
Oh yeah
Hymn
Elegy
Idyll
Sonnet
Song
Romance
Dithyramb
Madrigal
Thought
Message
Epigram
Ballad

Ode is the leading genre of high style, characteristic primarily of the poetry of classicism. The ode is distinguished by canonical themes (glorification of God, fatherland, life wisdom, etc.), techniques (“quiet” or “swift” attack, the presence of digressions, permitted “lyrical disorder”) and types (spiritual odes, solemn odes - “Pindaric”, moralizing - “Horatian”, love - “Anacreontic”).

The anthem is a solemn song based on programmatic verses.

Elegy is a genre of lyric poetry, a poem of medium length, meditative or emotional content (usually sad), most often in the first person, without a distinct composition.”

Idyll is a genre of lyricism, a small work that depicts an eternally beautiful nature, sometimes in contrast with a restless and vicious person, a peaceful virtuous life in the lap of nature, etc.

A sonnet is a poem of 14 lines forming 2 quatrains and 2 tercets or 3 quatrains and 1 couplet. The following types of sonnets are known:
“French” sonnet - abba abba ccd eed (or ccd ede);
“Italian” sonnet - abab abab cdc dcd (or cde cde);
“English sonnet” - abab cdcd efef gg.

The Wreath of Sonnets is a cycle of 14 sonnets, in which the first verse of each repeats the last verse of the previous one (forming a “garland”), and together these first verses form the 15th, “main” sonnet (forming a glossa).

Romance is a short poem written for solo singing with instrumental accompaniment, the text of which is characterized by melodious melody, syntactic simplicity and harmony, completeness of the sentence within the boundaries of the stanza.

Dithyramb is a genre of ancient lyric poetry that arose as a choral song, a hymn in honor of the god Dionysus, or Bacchus, and later in honor of other gods and heroes.

Madrigal is a short poem of predominantly loving and complimentary (less often abstract and meditative) content, usually with a paradoxical sharpening at the end.

Duma is a lyric-epic song, the style of which is characterized by symbolic pictures, negative parallelisms, retardation, tautological phrases, and unity of command.

The message is a genre of lyricism, a poetic letter, the formal sign of which is the presence of an appeal to a specific addressee and, accordingly, such motives as requests, wishes, exhortation, etc. The content of the message according to tradition (from Horace) is mainly moral, philosophical and didactic, but there were numerous messages: narrative, panegyric, satirical, love, etc.

An epigram is a short satirical poem, usually with a sharp point at the end.

A ballad is a poem with a dramatic development of the plot, which is based on an extraordinary story that reflects the essential moments of interactions between a person and society or interpersonal relationships. Character traits ballads - small volume, intense plot, usually full of tragedy and mystery, abrupt narration, dramatic dialogue, melodiousness and musicality.

Synthesis of lyrics with other types of literature

Lyric-epic genres (types) - literary and artistic works that combine the features of epic and lyric poetry; the plot narration of events is combined in them with emotional and meditative statements of the narrator, creating an image of the lyrical “I”. The connection between the two principles can act as the unity of the theme, as the narrator’s self-reflection, as the psychological and everyday motivation of the story, as the author’s direct participation in the unfolding plot, as the author’s exposure own techniques, becoming an element of the artistic concept. Compositionally, this connection is often formalized in the form lyrical digressions.

A prose poem is a lyrical work in prose form that has such characteristics of a lyric poem as a small volume, increased emotionality, usually a plotless composition, and a general focus on expressing a subjective impression or experience.

Lyrical hero- the image of a poet in lyrics, one of the ways to reveal the author's consciousness. A lyrical hero is an artistic “double” of the author-poet, growing out of the text of lyrical compositions (a cycle, a book of poems, a lyric poem, the entire body of lyrics) as a clearly defined figure or life role, as a person endowed with certainty of individual destiny, psychological distinctness inner world, and sometimes with features of plastic appearance.

Forms of lyrical expression:
monologue in the first person (A.S. Pushkin - “I loved you...”);
role-playing lyrics - a monologue on behalf of the character introduced into the text (A.A. Blok - “I am Hamlet, / The blood runs cold...”);
expression of the author’s feelings and thoughts through an object image (A.A. Fet - “The lake fell asleep...”);
expression of the author’s feelings and thoughts through reflections in which objective images play a subordinate role or are fundamentally conditional (A.S. Pushkin - “Echo”);
expression of the author’s feelings and thoughts through the dialogue of conventional heroes (F. Villon - “The dispute between Villon and his soul”);
addressing an unidentified person (F.I. Tyutchev - “Silentium”);
plot (M.Yu. Lermontov - “Three Palms”).

Tragedy - “Tragedy of Rock”, “High Tragedy”;
Comedy - Comedy of characters, Comedy of everyday life (morals), Comedy of situations, Comedy of masks (commedia del’arte), Comedy of intrigue, Comedy-slapstick, Lyrical comedy, Satirical comedy, Social comedy, “High comedy”;
Drama (type) - “Pittish Drama”, Psychological Drama, Lyrical Drama, Narrative (Epic) Drama;
Tragicomedy;
Mystery;
Melodrama;
Vaudeville;
Farce.

Tragedy is a type of drama based on the insoluble conflict of heroic characters with the world and its tragic outcome. The tragedy is marked by stern seriousness, depicts reality in the most pointed way, as a clot of internal contradictions, reveals the deepest conflicts of reality in an extremely intense and rich form, acquiring the meaning of an artistic symbol.

Comedy is a type of drama in which characters, situations and action are presented in funny forms or imbued with the comic. Comedy is aimed primarily at ridiculing the ugly (contrary to a social ideal or norm): the heroes of the comedy are internally bankrupt, incongruous, do not correspond to their position, purpose, and thus are sacrificed to laughter, which debunks them, thereby fulfilling its “ideal” mission.

Drama (type) is one of the main types of drama as a literary genre, along with tragedy and comedy. Like comedy, it mainly reproduces the private life of people, but its main goal is not to ridicule morals, but to depict the individual in his dramatic relationship with society. Like tragedy, drama tends to recreate acute contradictions; at the same time, its conflicts are not so intense and inescapable and, in principle, allow for the possibility of a successful resolution, and the characters are not so exceptional.

Tragicomedy is a type of drama that has characteristics of both tragedy and comedy. The tragicomic attitude that underlies tragicomedy is associated with a sense of the relativity of existing life criteria and the rejection of the moral absolute of comedy and tragedy. Tragicomedy does not recognize the absolute at all; the subjective here can be seen as objective and vice versa; a sense of relativity can lead to complete relativism; overestimation of moral principles may come down to uncertainty in their omnipotence or to the final rejection of solid morality; an unclear understanding of reality can cause burning interest in it or complete indifference; it can result in less certainty in displaying the laws of existence or indifference to them and even their denial - up to the recognition of the illogicality of the world.

Mystery - a genre of Western European theater of the era late Middle Ages, the content of which consisted of biblical stories; religious scenes alternated with interludes, mysticism was combined with realism, piety with blasphemy.

Melodrama is a type of drama, a play with acute intrigue, exaggerated emotionality, sharp contrast good and evil, moral and instructive tendency.

Vaudeville is a type of drama, a light play with entertaining intrigue, with couplet songs and dances.

Farce is a type of folk theater and literature of Western European countries of the 14th-16th centuries, primarily France, which was distinguished by a comic, often satirical orientation, realistic concreteness, freethinking and was full of buffoonery.

What is dramaturgy? The answer to this question will depend on the context in which the word was used. First of all, this is a type of literature intended for stage productions, implying the interaction of characters with the outside world, which is accompanied by an explanation from the author.

Dramaturgy also represents works that are built according to a single principle and laws.

Features of dramaturgy

• The action should take place in the present time and develop rapidly in the same place. The viewer becomes a witness and must be in suspense and empathize with what is happening.
• The production can cover a time period of several hours or even years. However, the action should not last more than a day on stage, as it is limited by the viewing capabilities of the audience.
• Depending on the chronology of the work, a drama may consist of one or more acts. Thus, the literature of French classicism is usually represented by 5 acts, and Spanish drama is characterized by 2 acts.
• All characters dramas are divided into two groups - antagonists and protagonists (off-stage characters may also be present), and each act is a duel. But the author should not support anyone's side - the viewer can only guess from hints from the context of the work.

Drama Construction

A drama has a plot, plot, theme and intrigue.

• The plot is a conflict, the relationship of characters with events, which, in turn, include several elements: exposition, plot, development of action, climax, decline of action, denouement and finale.
• A plot is a series of interconnected real or fictional events in a time sequence. Both the plot and the plot are a narrative about events, but the plot represents only the fact of what happened, and the plot is a cause-and-effect relationship.
• A theme is a series of events that form the basis of a dramatic work, which are united by one problem, that is, what the author wanted the viewer or reader to think about.
• Dramatic suspense is the interaction of characters that influences the expected course of events in a story.

Elements of Drama

• Exposition - a statement of the current state of affairs, which gives rise to the conflict.
• The beginning is the initiation of a conflict or the prerequisites for its development.
• Climax is the highest point of conflict.
• The denouement is the coup or downfall of the main character.
• The finale is a resolution of the conflict, which can end in three ways: the conflict is resolved and has a happy ending, the conflict is not resolved, or the conflict is resolved tragically - the death of the main character or any other conclusion of the hero from the work in the finale.

The question “what is dramaturgy” can now be answered with another definition - this is the theory and art of constructing a dramatic work. It must rely on the rules of plotting, have a plan and a main idea. But in the course of historical development, dramaturgy, genres (tragedy, comedy, drama), its elements and means of expression changed, which divided the history of dramaturgy into several cycles.

The Birth of Drama

For the first time, wall inscriptions and papyri testified to the origin of drama in the era Ancient Egypt, in which there was also a beginning, climax and denouement. The priests, who had knowledge about the deities, influenced the consciousness of the Egyptian people precisely thanks to myths.

The myth of Isis, Osiris and Horus represented a kind of Bible for the Egyptians. Dramaturgy further developed in Ancient Greece in the 5th-6th century BC. e. The genre of tragedy originated in ancient Greek drama. The plot of the tragedy was expressed in the opposition of a good and fair hero to evil. The finale ended with the tragic death of the main character and was supposed to cause strong emotions in the viewer for the deep cleansing of his soul. This phenomenon has a definition - catharsis.

The myths were dominated by military and political themes, since the tragedians of that time themselves participated in wars more than once. The dramaturgy of Ancient Greece is represented by the following famous writers: Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides. In addition to tragedy, the genre of comedy was also revived, in which Aristophanes made the main theme of peace. People are tired of wars and lawlessness of the authorities, therefore they demand a peaceful and calm life. Comedy originated from comic songs, which were sometimes even frivolous. Humanism and democracy were the main ideas in the work of comedians. The most famous tragedies of that time include the plays “The Persians” and “Prometheus Bound” by Aeschylus, “Oedipus the King” by Sophocles and “Medea” by Euripides.

On the development of drama in the 2nd-3rd century BC. e. influenced by ancient Roman playwrights: Plautus, Terence and Seneca. Plautus empathized with the lower strata of slave-owning society, ridiculed greedy moneylenders and traders, therefore, taking ancient Greek stories as a basis, he supplemented them with stories about the difficult life of ordinary citizens. His works contained many songs and jokes; the author was popular with his contemporaries and subsequently influenced European drama. Thus, Moliere took his famous comedy “Treasure” as a basis when writing his work “The Miser.”

Terence is a representative of a later generation. He does not focus on expressive means, but goes deeper into describing the psychological component of the characters’ character, and the themes for comedies are everyday and family conflicts between fathers and children. His famous play “Brothers” reflects this problem most clearly.

Another playwright who made a great contribution to the development of drama is Seneca. He was the tutor of Nero, Emperor of Rome, and occupied a high position with him. The playwright's tragedies always developed around the protagonist's revenge, which pushed him to commit terrible crimes. Historians explain this by the bloody outrages that took place at that time in the imperial palace. Seneca's Medea later influenced Western European theater, but, unlike Euripides' Medea, the queen is represented negative character, thirsty for revenge and not experiencing any worries.

In the imperial era, tragedies are replaced by another genre - pantomime. This is a dance accompanied by music and singing, usually performed by one actor with his mouth taped. But even more popular were circus performances in amphitheaters - gladiator fights and chariot competitions, which led to the decline of morals and the collapse of the Roman Empire. For the first time, playwrights presented to the audience as closely as possible what dramaturgy is, but the theater was destroyed, and drama was revived again only after a half-millennium break in development.

Liturgical drama

After the collapse of the Roman Empire, drama was revived again only in the 9th century in church rituals and prayers. The church, in order to attract as many people as possible to worship and control the masses through the worship of God, introduces small spectacular performances, such as the resurrection of Jesus Christ or other biblical stories. This is how liturgical drama developed.

However, people gathered for the performances and were distracted from the service itself, as a result of which a semi-liturgical drama arose - the performances were moved to the porch and everyday stories began to be taken as a basis, based on biblical stories that were more understandable to the audience.

Revival of drama in Europe

Dramaturgy further developed during the Renaissance in the 14th-16th centuries, returning to the values ​​of ancient culture. Stories from ancient Greek and Roman myths inspire Renaissance authors

It was in Italy that theater began to be revived, a professional approach to stage productions appeared, such a musical genre of work as opera was formed, comedy, tragedy and pastoral were revived - a genre of drama, main theme which was rural life. Comedy in its development gave two directions:

• a scholarly comedy intended for a circle of educated people;
• street comedy - improvisational mask theater.

The most prominent representatives of Italian drama are Angelo Beolco ("Coquette", "Comedy without a title"), Giangiorgio Trissino ("Sofonisba") and Lodovico Ariosto ("Comedy of the Chest", "Orlando Furious").

English drama is strengthening the position of the theater of realism. Myths and mysteries are being replaced by a socio-philosophical understanding of life. The founder of Renaissance drama is considered to be the English playwright Christopher Marlowe (“Tamerlane”, “The Tragic History of Doctor Faustus”). The theater of realism developed under William Shakespeare, who also supported humanistic ideas in his works - “Romeo and Juliet”, “King Lear”, “Othello”, “Hamlet”. The authors of this time listened to the wishes of the common people, and the favorite heroes of the plays were simpletons, moneylenders, warriors and courtesans, as well as modest heroines making self-sacrifice. The characters adapt to the plot, which conveys the realities of that time.

The period of the 17th-18th centuries is represented by the dramaturgy of the Baroque and Classical eras. Humanism as a direction fades into the background, and the hero feels lost. Baroque ideas separate God and man, that is, now man himself is left to influence his own destiny. The main direction of Baroque dramaturgy is mannerism (the impermanence of the world and the precarious position of man), which is inherent in the dramas “Fuente Ovejuna” and “The Star of Seville” by Lope de Vega and the works of Tirso de Molina - “The Seducer of Seville”, “The Pious Martha”.

Classicism is the opposite of baroque mainly in that it is based on realism. The main genre is tragedy. A favorite theme in the works of Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine and Jean-Baptiste Moliere is the conflict of personal and civil interests, feelings and duty. Serving the state is the highest noble goal for a person. The tragedy “The Cid” brought enormous success to Pierre Corneille, and two plays by Jean Racine “Alexander the Great” and “Thebaid, or the Enemy Brothers” were written and staged on the advice of Moliere.

Moliere was the most popular playwright of the time and was under the patronage of the reigning lady and left behind 32 plays written in a variety of genres. The most significant of them are “Madman”, “Doctor in Love” and “Imaginary Invalid”.

During the Enlightenment, three movements were developed: classicism, sentimentalism and rococo, which influenced the drama of 18th-century England, France, Germany and Italy. The injustice of the world towards ordinary people has become a major theme for playwrights. The upper classes share places with ordinary people. “Enlightenment theater” frees people from established prejudices and becomes not only entertainment, but also a school of morality for them. The bourgeois drama is gaining popularity (George Lylo "The Merchant of London" and Edward Moore "The Gambler"), which highlights the problems of the bourgeoisie, considering them as important as the problems of the royals.

Gothic dramaturgy was presented for the first time by John Gom in the tragedies “Douglas” and “Fatal Discovery,” whose themes were of a family and everyday nature. French dramaturgy was represented to a greater extent by the poet, historian and publicist Francois Voltaire (“Oedipus”, “The Death of Caesar”, “The Prodigal Son”). John Gay (The Beggar's Opera) and Bertolt Brecht (The Threepenny Opera) opened up new directions for comedy - moralizing and realistic. And Henry Fielding almost always criticized the English political system through satirical comedies (“Love in Various Masks,” “Coffee Shop Politician”), theatrical parodies (“Pasquin”), farces and ballad operas (“The Lottery,” “The Scheming Maid”), after which a law on theatrical censorship was introduced .

Since Germany is the founder of romanticism, German drama received its greatest development in the 18th and 19th centuries. The main character of the works is an idealized creatively gifted personality, contrasted real world. F. Schelling had a great influence on the worldview of the romantics. Later, Gotthald Lessing published his work “Hamburg Drama,” where he criticizes classicism and promotes the ideas of Shakespeare’s educational realism. Johann Goethe and Friedrich Schiller create the Weimar Theater and improve the school of acting. The most prominent representatives of German drama are Heinrich von Kleist (“The Schroffenstein Family,” “Prince Friedrich of Homburg”) and Johann Ludwig Tieck (“Puss in Boots,” “The World Inside Out”).

The rise of drama in Russia

Russian drama began to actively develop back in the 18th century under the representative of classicism - A. P. Sumarokov, called the “father Russian theater", whose tragedies ("Monsters", "Narcissus", "The Guardian", "Cuckold by Imagination") were focused on the work of Moliere. But it was in the 19th century that this movement played an outstanding role in the history of culture.

Several genres developed in Russian dramas. These are tragedies by V. A. Ozerov (“Yaropolk and Oleg”, “Oedipus in Athens”, “Dimitri Donskoy”), which reflected socio-political problems relevant during the Napoleonic wars, satirical comedies by I. Krylov (“Mad Family”, “The Coffee Shop”) and educational dramas by A. Griboedov (“Woe from Wit”), N. Gogol (“The Inspector General”) and A. Pushkin (“Boris Godunov,” “Feast in the Time of Plague”).

In the second half of the 19th century, realism firmly established its position in Russian dramas, and A. Ostrovsky became the most prominent playwright of this trend. His work consisted historical plays(“The Voivode”), dramas (“The Thunderstorm”), satirical comedies (“Wolves and Sheep”) and fairy tales. The main character of the works was a resourceful adventurer, merchant and provincial actor.

Features of the new direction

The period from the 19th to the 20th century introduces us to a new drama, which is naturalistic dramaturgy. Writers of this time sought to convey “real” life, showing the most unsightly aspects of the life of people of that time. A person’s actions were determined not only by his internal beliefs, but also by the surrounding circumstances that influenced them, so the main character of a work could be not just one person, but even a whole family or a separate problem or event.

The new drama represents several literary movements. They are all united by the playwrights' attention to state of mind character, a plausible representation of reality and an explanation of all human actions from a natural science point of view. It was Henrik Ibsen who is the founder of the new drama, and the influence of naturalism was most clearly manifested in his play “Ghosts”.

In the theatrical culture of the 20th century, 4 main directions began to develop - symbolism, expressionism, Dada and surrealism. All the founders of these directions in drama were united by the refusal traditional culture and search for new expressive means. Maeterlinck (“The Blind,” “Joan of Arc”) and Hofmannsthal (“The Fool and Death”), as representatives of symbolism, use death and the role of man in society as the main theme in their plays, and Hugo Ball, a representative of Dadaist drama, emphasized the meaninglessness of human existence and the complete denial of all beliefs. Surrealism is associated with the name of Andre Breton (“Please”), whose heroes are characterized by incoherent dialogues and self-destruction. Expressionist dramaturgy inherits romanticism, where main character against the whole world. Representatives of this direction in drama were Gun Jost (“Young Man”, “The Hermit”), Arnolt Bronnen (“Revolt Against God”) and Frank Wedekind (“Pandora’s Box”).

Contemporary drama

At the turn of the 20th-21st centuries, modern dramaturgy lost its achieved positions and moved into a state of searching for new genres and means of expression. The direction of existentialism was formed in Russia, and then it developed in Germany and France.

Jean-Paul Sartre in his dramas (“Behind Closed Doors”, “Flies”) and other playwrights choose as the hero of their works a person who is constantly in thoughts of thoughtlessly living life. This fear makes him think about the imperfections of the world around him and change it.

Under the influence of Franz Kafka, the theater of the absurd arises, which denies realistic characters, and the works of playwrights are written in the form of repetitive dialogues, inconsistency of actions and the absence of cause-and-effect relationships. Russian drama chooses universal human values ​​as its main theme. She defends human ideals and strives for beauty.

The development of drama in literature is directly related to the course historical events in the world. Playwrights different countries, constantly under the impression of socio-political problems, they themselves often led trends in art and thus influenced the masses. The heyday of drama came back in the era of the Roman Empire, Ancient Egypt and Greece, during the development of which the forms and elements of drama changed, and the theme for the works either introduced new problems into the plot, or returned to old problems from antiquity. And if the playwrights of the first millennia paid attention to the expressiveness of speech and the character of the hero, which is most clearly expressed in the work of the playwright of that time - Shakespeare, then representatives modern direction strengthened the role of atmosphere and subtext in their works. Based on the above, we can give a third answer to the question: what is dramaturgy? These are dramatic works united by one era, country or writer.